 Hello and welcome back to NPTEL, the National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning, a joint venture of Indian Institutes of Technology and Indian Institute of Science. As you are aware, these lectures are for students in the IITs and other engineering colleges. The role of humanities and social sciences is quite significant in the curriculum of engineering students. While literature, we may ask that why it is so important for the study of engineering, we think that a course on humanities and social sciences sensitizes students vocabulary, not only that an interface between society, between shared individual experiences and ultimately the aesthetic proportions of sharing other experiences and individual thoughts ultimately leads to a different interface of studies. Well, I am Krishna Varua, I have been teaching English at the department of humanities and social science at IIT Guwahati and we are presently in the lecture series Language and Literature and this is module 3 of the series titled History of English Literature and we are in lecture 4 of this module titled The Augustan Age, the Augustan Age. Let us recap of what we had done in lecture 1, this was where we had gone into the necessity of studying literature for understanding the series of poems and dramas and short stories and essays we brought before you. We want you to be introduced to the spirit of the age and the ideals of nations history. Many students ask me what is this need of the background of understanding the historical significance or the cultural significance or the social significance of the age, I think it is very very essential somewhere or the other the exchanges which come between one age to the other is essential for your understanding of a text or of a writer. We should enjoy the literary journey of poems, stories and plays and the socio-political milieu from the Victorian era or even as far back as sources types. When we went through the first lecture the Anglo-Saxon literature it was 5 striking characteristics while we are doing the different stages of English literature we will see how there have been convergences and divergences from one age to the other whether there have been some of the striking features which have been continuing and somewhere there has been a change specially the meaning of freedom, the meaning of expression, the meaning of representation. So in the Anglo-Saxon literature we have seen that there was this love of freedom, the love of liberty, reverence for womanhood and most of the poems or literature was alliterative and a ruling motive in every warrior's life, devotion to glory. And in lecture 2 we have gone and that was in lecture 1 we had the age of saucer, the first major father of you can say English poetry, even English novel and the English short story. When we come to the age of Shakespeare where the Shakespeare as a person, as a dramatist as a poet dominates the entire age we have seen his achievement was largely made possible by the work of his immediate predecessors like Spencer and Sidney in the mastery of verse, Marlowe and the university which specially in drama and then how the change was coming more on the way that concentration of man and the power of human reason to interpret man and nature. And here for the first time we find the dignity of modern English as a literary medium. In lecture 3 we came to Milton and Eustam's and this is where we were quite interesting it was quite interesting to see how Shakespeare and Milton were the two figures that towered conspicuously till now each was representative of his age, one that produced him, one was the force of impulse in Shakespeare and the force of fixed purpose in Milton. Now we come to the Augustan age lecture 4 and in English Richard Augustan age roughly from 1700 to 1745 was the neoclassical age to bring out the analogy between the first it was a self conscious imitation of the age of Augustus which was supposed to be the classic age, Latin literature of the days of Virgil and Horace the classical period of Latin literature. And it also refers to literature with the predominant laws and rules of refinement where there was attention to detail to clarity elegance and balance of judgment recalling the golden age by examining the enduring truths of human nature. This age in the 18th century we find is also has been termed the age of reason or enlightenment. You have to remember in the in the European sub in the European continent we have seen how enlightenment had taken place specially the Augustan age was the period after the restoration era to the death of Alexander Pope. You can come a bit earlier from 1690 to 1744 enlightenment what was the enlightened about enlightenment about in Europe it contrasted with the darkness of irrationality and superstition which characterized the middle ages it was the age of reason belief in progress and in the power of reason increased and it was a distinctive trait of the period which is also known as the age of reason characteristics of this period included observing human nature as well as nature by itself in landscape which were considered unchanging and constant. And the major writers of this period were Pope and John Dryden in poetry Jonathan Swift Joseph Edison in prose to mention only the few. So we have to go back to the historical background right. So three historical events deeply influenced the literary movements of the time we had just mentioned the restoration of the year 1660 that was the restoration of the monarchy just after the Puritan government fell I mean Cromwell's government fell and there was this restoration of the monarchy and the Roman Catholic controversy that raised during the latter half of Charles Second's reign and the revolution of the year 1688. So the period let us go back the period prior to the Augustan age was the restoration ok. So because Dryden also falls in that period it will be necessary for us to also talk about the restoration while we are talking about the Augustan age and after the Augustan age will come romanticism. The English Augustan age spans 1700 to 1740 with the reign of Queen Anne King George and King George II. Pope is a dominant figure in this period's poetry Dryden also is mentioned four times in Pope's essay on criticism. Do Dryden and Pope are classical as neo classical writers I do not think they were aware of it during this lifetime right. So this restoration and the 18th century if we look into the general characteristics if we look into the political spectrum if we look into the background which is necessary for you to understand how political developments also added to the representation in literature. So begins in 1660 and you remember that during the Puritan during the parliamentary form of government under Cromwell we found that what had happened that the year in which King Charles II was restored to the English throne there was the closing of the theatres and with the reopening of the English theatres closed during Cromwell's Puritan regime and the restoration of the search of England as the national search we find there was a play of excesses specially in drama. Then again there was another change in the exclusion crisis after the Stuart monarchy because King Charles II did not have any air therefore it created modern political parties and the Tories who had first come who supported the King and the Whigs who opposed him. So this was the rise of the Whigs and the Tories it is almost a precursor of the modern system of government in UK. England, Scotland and Wales were united for the first time here by the 1707 act of union and most important aspect over here we will go into this later to the rise of the middle classes. Increased importance was placed on the private individual life as is evident in literary forms such as diaries, letters and the novel emerging social ideas people became more responsible a new rhetoric of liberty and rights sentiment and sympathy. And when we look at 1714 to 1727 just after Queen Anne, Queen Anne was succeeded by George I who was a descendant of the Stuart's then during George's reign transition to the modern system of cabinet government which we just see now this late the foundation for that form of parliamentary monarchy which has been existent in England ever since. So the restoration if we go into that we see refers to the restoration of the monarchy when Charles II was restored and of course this 11 year Commonwealth period which the country was governed by parliament under direction of the Puritan general Oliver Cromwell. Political event coincides with changes in the literary, scientific and cultural life it was very very important. So the the the exchanges which were going on and this this course this approach that was going on between the parliamentry between what was happening in the political field in the social field was equally represented in literature. So this history or the restoration of Charles II brought about a revolution in English literature with the collapse of the Puritan government that sprang up activities that had been so long suppressed that they flew to violent excesses. The Commonwealth had insisted on gravity and dechrom in all things we had done in the previous lecture that there was always a rule there was a limit to what one had to say and the restoration encouraged and levity that often became immoral and indecent. Along with much that is saying and powerful this later tendency is prominent in the writing of the times specially in the comedies we find the comedy of manners specially during the style. Now if we look into the history of the period this revolution of 1688 so this was an event why was it important which banished the last of the Stuart Kings and called William of Orange to the throne marks the end of a long struggle for political freedom in England. So now we find modern England was formally established by the revolution which was brought about by the excesses of the restoration. Most important most significant aspect in studying this age was this history of the book there after the Englishman spent this tremendous energy which we have found that there was this cause of liberty this cause of freedom which was there a passion was there in the Elizabethan age from the Anglo-Saxon age to the Perotan age which his foveurs had largely spent in fighting for freedom in endless political discussions and in efforts to improve his government. So now we find that there was the social responsibility and political responsibility that one could govern and the question of governance came in. In order to bring about reforms therefore, both were now necessary and to influence the public opinion therefore, they have to be dissemination of ideas facts arguments information. So the newspaper was born the rise of the middle classes the printing press everything led to the dissemination of the spread of knowledge and literature in its wider sense including the book the newspaper the magazine became the chief instrument of the nation's progress not to speak of the novel which came just after that. Therefore, when we look into this literature from 1660 to 1785 what do we see we find that it can be divided into three shorter periods of 40 years each first period is 1660 to 1700 that of John Dryden where we have the neoclassical period where emphasis on Decorum or critical principles based on what is elegant fit and right the neoclassical age. Then comes 1700 to 1745 that is of Jonathan Swift Alexander Pope in 1744 another stage where emphasis on satire more on satire and on wider public leadership. Then 1700 to 1745 when we look into that the Augustine era of writers like Swift, Defoe, Pope Edison still was rich in satire and new prose forms that blended fact and fiction such as news, criminal biographies, travelogues. So these are new genres of literary representation which came into existence political allegories and romantic tales. So therefore, early 18th century drama even saw a development of sentimental comedy which we had referred to just now the excesses which were there in the early restoration period in which goodness and high moral sentiments are emphasized and the audience is moved not only to laughter but also to sympathetic tears well. So some of the great figures of the restoration literature from 1600 to 1700 and we find that Bryden Butler-Wisely Congrave Bunyan Eveline not in great order but yes you can get an idea about it. So who was John Bryden he was a greater writer of the age voiced a general complaint when he said that in his prose and poetry he was drawing the outlines of a new art because the passion of the Elizabethans and the purpose of the Puritan age somewhere did not have any effect upon this new age and he wanted to draw the outlines of a new art but he moaned that he had no teacher to instruct him. The writers of the age developed two mark tendencies of their own. So what was this new tendencies the tendency towards realism the representation of reality as such and a different style or technique of writing which was in the preciseness in the austere simplicity and elegance of expression. So this new classicism if you note this by the year 1660 Elizabethan romanticism had all but spent itself. John Milton we had seen had still to write Paradise Lost but in everything Milton was of the past even at this time. At the restoration he retired and walked in obscurity he was blind you remember and his great poem reveals no signs of the time in which his later years were cast. The age which produced Newton's Principia Milton's Paradise Lost this is the age 18th century Dryden's, Absalom and Attritable, Purcell's music and Wren's searches and all the varied interest and curiosities of the daily life recorded by Evelyn and Pepe's. Such an age was one of the greatest for English genius and civilization many think that Augustine age was a significant age for English genius and civilization. It could not have been what it was without the printing press of course granted that yet it is remarkable what a small amount of printing served its term. In every preceding age we have seen haven't we that is specially the political works which constitute the glory of English literature. The Matthew Arnill had already remarked that the glory of an age is poetry but now for the first time we must chronicle the triumph of English prose a multitude of practical interest arising from the new social and political conditions. We have seen that there was development in the social field there was development in the political field and there was the age of reason and enlightenment which led to a new thinking of every man every man was almost literate you can call that and everyone was aware and that demanded expression not simply in books but most specially in pamphlets magazines and newspapers. So, poetry was inadequate for such a task if we look at the Elizabethan age we find that the age of Shakespeare it was where people sang they did not talk but here people wrote in prose and the graceful elegance if we look into Edison's essays the terse figure of swift satires even fielding novels the sonorous eloquence of Gibbons history and works orations this have no parallel in the poetry of the age. Indeed poetry itself became prosaic we see the reversal of the trend in this respect that it was used not for a creative works of imagination but for essays, for satire, for criticism and for exactly the same practical ends as was prose. The poetry of the first half of the century as typified in the work of Pope and Rodin is polished and witty enough but somewhere there is that lack of spontaneity it lacks fire enthusiasm the glow of the Elizabethan age. In a word it interests us as a study of life yes rather than delights or inspires us by its appeal to the imagination. So, we concentrate in this age on the prose the triumph of prose the variety and excellence of prose works and the development of a serviceable prose style which had been begun by Dryden these are the chief literary glories of the 18th centuries. Therefore, I had referred to it altogether already in the beginning of the lecture that why do we study literature right and in studying the different stages of the development of history of English literature we find that the whole opening up of our aesthetic of our intellectual domain or in the way that it had developed through the evolution of ideas which has come in helps us to understand that there has been so many things which has gone into the making of literature of a period. It is not that we forget the past it is the past which determines the present and at the same time we are aware we are not ignorant of what is happening all around. Maybe this is what was said by Pierre Selyet when he said that a writer must have this historical sense and when one has the historical sense one has to be aware of what is going on all around and only then can you write of something or you can represent something which is of your own time and of the people surrounding you well. So, this was the age of satire writers were often found observing nature therefore, in the attempts to express their beliefs. So, satire comes for the first time in English literature human nature was considered a constant that observation and reason could be applied to for the advancement of knowledge within this circumstances this age of satire was born you could analyze yourself you could laugh at yourself and at the same time you can become a subject of observation. So, it became the most popular form of literary tool that was utilized by the writers of the time and with the help of satire writers were able to educate the public through literature. So, you might ask what is the role of satire and comedy in comedy too also we have satire, but it is very graceful the borderline between satire and the comedy is thin at the same time we find that the purpose is almost where we expose human frailties probably and at the same time we try to redeem the false which are there. So, when we come to John Dryden who towers over this age not as Milton towers over his age or as Shakespeare had towered over his age and that is why we have termed the ages age of Shakespeare or the age of Milton and not the age of Dryden here or Augustine period because we have many scholars many writers who are equally important to discuss. So, Dryden is the greatest literary figure of the restoration and this is a quote from William J Long and he says that if we can think for a moment of literature as a canal of water we are talking about a literary journey that we are taking is not it from the beginning to the modern's. We may appreciate the figure the Dryden is the lock by which the waters of English poetry were laid down from the mountains of Shakespeare and Milton to the plain of Pope. So, we have gone from the heights to the real the real pavilions of Pope that is he stands between two very different ages and serves as a transition from one to the other beautiful quote this is from William J Long. So, when we look at Dryden so, what do we see what did he write about he wrote in every form important to the period Ennis Mirabilis a narrative poem all for love which was written in blank verse then tragedy heroic plays old satires translation of classical work his epsilon and achievable has been undoubtedly the most powerful political satire in the language in this literature and restoration prose style somehow grew out of this and it became more witty and it became not rural not pastoral it became urban confined to the towns to the cities to the upper class urban conversation and less like a intricate rhetorical style of previous writers like John Milton and John Dunn. So, we have found that restoration literature continued to appeal to heroic idols of love and honor particularly on stage in heroic tragedy. So, the religious question when we come back into this we find that the strength of the religious political passions of the time is reflected also in the current literature there was a prevalent suspicion of the Catholics the famous poem of Dryden which we have referred to just now epsilon and achievable is an outstanding example of a kind of poem that abounded during those trouble years. So, it was a critique of the time of what was going on the conflict between the search and governance at the restoration the break with the past was almost absolute subject and style to come a new spirit and outlook as Dryden said I was trying to find out new avenues which will suit their age a different attitude and name. Hence the post restoration period is often set up as the converse and antithesis of the previous Elizabethan stage. If you want to show the dividing line then you will find that it was the post restoration it serves as a dividing line between the previous Elizabethan age. It is called classical as opposed to the Elizabethan romanticism the period which will come just after the Augustan age is also called a romantic age romanticism, but this romanticism is different from the Elizabethan romanticism. Though the contrast between the two epochs need not be over emphasized yet the differences are very great you find striking the similarities and when we see that the first thing that strikes you was the interest in reading and publishing houses which we have already said that it was not the age of poetry it was the age of prose and here the reading and publishing houses they became very very alert and active and the rising interest in politics witnessed the decline of the drama it result in a remarkable increase in the number of reading public and they became the forerunners of modern public houses they employed heck writers of the period they lived in miserable hobbles in the grub street. The rise of the middle class which is a very very important sociological dimension to the age of of this period to the Augustan age and this period of literature saw the emergence of a powerful middle class and the supremacy of the middle class made it an age of tolerance moderation and common sense it sought to refine manners introduced into life the role of sweet reasonableness the industrial revolution was just sometime away the middle class writers were greatly influenced by moral consideration therefore, it was an era of assimilation of the aristocracy and the middle class middle class tried to bring in the the the all the manners of the aristocracy they tried not to imitate, but to bring in their own standards of living. So, maybe there was the difference in class there was a difference in the aristocracy of the middle class and the emergence of middle class led to the rise of sentimentalism feelings and emotions which influence the literature of later half of the 18th century. Therefore, the first half of the 18th century was remarkable for the rapid social development in England while we are doing this age you must have noted that we are giving more emphasis to the social and the political background more than the literary representation of course, the literary representation representation is coming, but at the same time we cannot ignore what is happening on the surroundings for the first time they began themselves the task of learning art of living together in a single generation nearly 2000 public coffee houses sprang up in London alone this new social statues had a super perfect in polishing men's words and manners. First number of Tatler still announces that activities of his new journal will be based upon the clubs the coffee clubs all accounts of gallantly pressure everything shall be under the article of white chocolate house etcetera. Then comes the question of copyright which we are so much concerned with nowadays during this range of law of copyright 1709 was passed and the freedom of the press was restored in 1682 and large numbers of periodicals appeared and flourished in their different fashion. We have still who published this Tatler spectator we have Johnson too he also published other sort of periodicals. Let us see in what respects therefore, this new spirit is shown. Therefore, we find this completely new concentration on something which is different from the other ages. First we will see the imitation of the ancients because it was called the Augustan age lacking the genius of the Elizabethans the authors of this period turn to the greatest classical writers and that was in the beginning to the Latin writers for guidance inspiration and as we have seen during the time of guidance deepened and hardened during the succeeding era of Pope. So, much so that the letter laid down as a final test of excellent Pope had said that imitation of the ancient learn hence for ancient rules a justice team to copy nature is to copy them. Don't Dryden and Pope are classified and new classical writers and about nature in new classicism is returning to the classics aside from Dryden Pope also commenced Aristotle, Homer, Horace etcetera. Now, imitation of friends specially in the comedies. Charles and has spent most of his years in exile in France naturally he will bring in the influences of the French court. In particular the effects of this penetrated very deeply into the drama of French comedy Mollier was outstanding exponent and his influence was very great. Development of the literary forms therefore, viewed as a whole this period is seen to be one of transition isn't it. So, the Elizabethan power had spent itself new classicism was still in the making yet the time is important in the development of literary new literary forms. Political and social changes exhibiting the supremacy of good change rationality on the literature of days of pace of Pope and Dr. Johnson and why it is called age of providence and reason we have to see not because not of poetry because a large number of practical interest arising from new social and political conditions demanded expression not simply in books, but in pamphlets magazines and newspapers. The poetry of the first half of the 18th century was represented by the works of Pope and polished and with the buttocks fire filling, Matthew Arnold rightly calls 18th century the age of prose. Well when we had talked about satire then we will see that the predominance of society is an important literary characteristic of the age nearly every writer of the first half of the 18th century was used and rewarded by the two parties the weeks and the tories for satirizing the enemies and they were employed by these two different groups and Pope was an exception, but he too was a satirist power excellence and W. J. Long writes now satire that is a literary work which searches out the false of men or institution in order to hold them up to ridicule is at best a destructive type of criticism. So, where it had a negative dimension to it. So, restoration literary movement when we go back to the restoration having its impact upon Augustine age we find we are extremely varied with philosophical, political or sexual elements, pastoral literature somewhere or the other was present during the restoration, but the Augustine age focuses not on country life. The school of nature of poetry uses a contrary definition of nature to post at this violin grand. Then poetry we find the lyric shows little change in bulk it is inconsiderable for the lyrical spirit is largely abeyance in abeyance. Outside Dryden who is the best of lyrical poets we have this slight work of the courtiers the Earl of Dorset and Charles Sedley and the Earl of Rochester. Epic poetry we come into epic poetry how it was somehow a limitation long narrative poems on heroic subjects mark the best work of classical Greek. And we have seen how later in Paradise Law John Dryden also wrote epic poetry, but on classical and biblical poems. And the comic parody of the epic poem we have the mock heroic as we have found in Dryden where he experimented with that and the best example is Pope's The Rape of the Log. Though Dryden's work is a direct today it leads to the best poetry of the mid 18th century is the comic writing of Alexander Pope. And Pope is the best regarded comic writer and satirist of English poetry among his many masterpieces the mock heroic is The Rape of the Log. The old once more Dryden towers very eminent in this class of poem. His two oaths on the anniversary anniversary of Saint Cecilia's Day and his other old on the death of Mrs. Annie Kiligrew are among the best of any period. And we have already done that drama therefore we will have to see how from the sentimental comedy that tragedy and to the to the heroic play. So, tragedy the most novel in the meta form is the heroic play the tragical faculties weakening all through the period even in comparison with the post Shakespeare plays. Other major dramatic genre was the restoration it was a very significant mark comedy of manners which emphasizes sexual intrigue and satirizes the elites social behavior with very very witty dialogue. So, it was the dialogue which was the center stage of this of this place comedy of humours was also dying out though considerable traces of it Johnson's Ben Johnson's comedy of humours was still visible and was replaced by the comedy of manners. So, restoration comedy when we look into it were no longer prohibited on the death of Oliver Cromwell a new kind of comic drama which dealt with issues of sexual politics among the wealthy and the bourgeois arose and this is restoration comedy and many like married many say, but the best drama uses the restoration convention for a serious exam examination of contemporary morality. A play which exemplifies this well is The Country Why by William Wiesely and theta in England during the 18th century therefore, was dominated by the actor David Carrick. His performances had a tremendous impact on the art of acting from which ultimately grew movements such as realism and naturalism. Of course, there were plays which dealt with ordinary people as characters such as in Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith then we have the School for Scandal by Richard Seridan the growing desire for freedom both in Europe and North America. It was also in the 18th century that commercial theatre began to make its appearance in the colonies of North America. Well in prose therefore, when we see that it is the triumph of prose in this age with the exception of the work of Dryden and Bunyan the prose work of the time was of little movement even then Dryden's prose is almost entirely devoted to literary criticism Bunyan's contribution shows a remarkable development of the prose allegory and Samuel Johnson and his literary and intellectual circle when we come to the prose work we find that he had the greatest early novels of the English language comes in researches, research since Clarissa and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones this was in 1749 by the year 1700 during the range of Charles II the term weak part is stood for the preeminence of personal frame freedom as opposed the Hanoverian succession whereas, the Tories were Jacobites. So, this age was also the age of literary patronage there is of journalism and periodical essay when we look at the essay in our lecture on genres we had done that that the tetra and the spectator the names which signed very very prominently are those of Joseph Edison and research still and how the breezy conversational style or the journalistic prose of our times was went back to this days to this efforts when we look into the history the rise of the political parties therefore, as we have seen that the weak and the Tories first became current and domestic affairs were also somehow influencing the representation of the time and after the succession of the House of Hanover the first half of the 18th century was a period of stabilization and steadily growing well that prosperity their new classical style employed Roman form such as the old as we have seen and emphasize over emotion and elegance over brevity and when we come to Alexander Pope from 1688 to 1744 we can see popes work into three groups corresponding to the early middle and later period of his life. The first part are the pastoral the second is the translations of Homer and third is the Danziad and the epistels and the letter containing the famous essay on men and the epistels to the doctor are not. So, the literature of this period which conformed to popes aesthetic principles I had remarked that this was the growing of the aesthetic principles which was coming into the literature and could thus qualify as being Augustine is distinguished by striving for harmony of form and precision. So, it was a different form of aesthetics a different forms of technique with they were looking at. So, it became literature became a tool of representation and its urbanity and its imitation of classical models such as Homer, Cesaro, Virgil and Horace. So, when we come after Pope the emergence of new literary themes and more we see that with the death of Samuel Johnson in 1784 novelists became better known than poets and intellectual prose forms such as the essay probably ferrated be dating centuries often referred to as the age of Johnson too after the renowned essay Samuel Johnson who in 1755 55 wrote one of the first English dictionaries to define word meaning. So, the first English dictionary is attributed to him by employing quotation taken from the best English writers past and present and also by the 1740s the novel rose to dominate the literary marketplace with writers like Henry Fielding, Samuel Richardson, Laurence Stern defining the form and its mode of representing the private lives of individual. So, mind you while we are doing this forms what do you think of literature as representation or literature as imitation you must be going through so many different ways of reading attacks of interpreting attacks and when we look into it we sometimes think that literature has different different dimensions of understanding an individual or society and this writers in different ways were occupied preoccupied or with form with the way of representation with the way of how literature can be written right. And therefore, I feel that you as students of technical field also will understand the importance of form the importance of where system takes in writing something which is of imagination may be, but ultimately it leads to a technique in representation. So, when we come to Samuel Johnson what did he say a book says Dr. Johnson should help us either to enjoy life or to endure it. So, the question of aesthetic pleasure or delight is something which we must take into consideration when we study language and literature right and it is somewhere another dimension another perspective in which we understand literature. Judge by this standard one is puzzled what to recommend among Johnson's numerous books we have seen are his dictionary his lives of the poets which were almost like biographies of all the leading writers of the time. He was also called the greatest assist of all time specially to the Tatla and the spectator and where colloquial English language of the people was shown and also written in elevated prose with Johnson who succeeded Dryden and Pope in the sift place of English letters the classic movement had largely spent its form. So, now we can see that how it had taken its form through the different periods through the different writers and the later half of the 18th century gives us an imposing area of writers who differ so widely that is almost impossible to classify them. In general three schools of writers are noticeable first the classicist just after Johnson and the Johnson's lead, second the romantic poets. So, the pre-romantic like Colen's Gray Thompson and Burns who were the precursors of romanticism and also the early novelists like Defoe and Fielding who introduced a new type of literature. So, when we come into Daniel Defoe right we can see that he shows the account of a historian it is almost as if he is documenting what is going on around him. When a survey is demanded of Queen Anne's England and his everyday life our thoughts always turn to Daniel Defoe writing solitary and observant through the countryside. This is what Develine had said in the social history of English literature. He first perfected the art of the reporter and you have to see it was not Edison and still, but it was Daniel Defoe who could report on what he had seen and put it into the literature. Even his novels such as Robinson Crusoe and Mall Franders are imaginary reports of daily life whether on a desert island or in a thieves den. For Defoe was one of the first who saw the old world through a pair of Serb modern eyes. So, the first modern you can turn in. Who was the first novelist Defoe? If you can say that it was Spanish Seventus and the very English Daniel Defoe. So, both of them can occupy the same position where really the novel became the dominant form of creative literature in the mid 18th century. Daniel Defoe and his novel Robinson Crusoe in 1719 and later Mall Franders 1722. The reading public has increased and you see that it was something that he had a great followers. Then comes Samuel Richardson's Pamela published in 1740. It was supposed to be the first major novel Henry Fielding where characters became prominent and essential quality to the novel appeared. The buildings Roman or whatever you can call it how a character develops in the process of the whole novel and the rise of the novel in the 18th century written by Defoe Richardson and Fielding was partly due to its milieu and particularly the changing political, social, economic shifts as a result of the industrial revolution. Granted this you have to grant that it was the milieu which ultimately give place to the rise of the novel. So, the industrial revolution from 1750 to 1850 became the dominant form of creative literature even in the mid 19th century. When you go to romantic age we will find that it was apart from poetry it was also one of the dominant genres. Though new classism was spread in the English August 10 period there was other movements during the period. What was coming around after Johnson there was the graveyard poets had a melancholy tone both movements presuppose the oncoming romanticism literary movement. Serious poetry of the period is well represented by the neo classical Thomas Gray from 1716 to 1771 whose elegy written in a country such as this is a poem I think each one of you should read and it is an excellent poem and a classic poem virtually perfects the elegant style favored at that time. Some critics also placed the end of the 18th century at 1776 linking it to the American revolution others and 1789 the beginning of the French revolution stills others in 1798 the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge lyrical ballet. So, you have to note this landmarks you have to note this times whether it was the French revolution or it was the American revolution or the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge lyrical balance because it throws a link or it shows the dividing line between one age and the other. So, this transition between Augustine period and the romantic period was a drastic shift in literary ideals. The Augustines followed the works of former classical writers we have seen such as Horace Virgil and Homer their attention to detail their attention to rules their attention to perfection and elegance of prose where everything was somehow and went under great scrutiny everything was not just spontaneous imagination or spontaneous overflow of fillings to them this was the proper and only way to write they followed the views of Aristotle which led them to an empirical way of teaching. So, therefore, some characteristics of Augustine poetry are the concept of individualism as a society the imitation of the classics if you look into that politics and social issues which are equally important satire and irony irony there is a that is a way that rhetoric and prosody comes into form empiricism and comedy. So, let us sum up the social and historical aspects of restoration period you have seen the rise of neo classicism imitations of the ancient masters and the impact on the writings of the restoration is you can say it was a conscious imitation of the classics and introduction of correctness and appropriateness as well as formalism and realism in their writing. So, when we talk about the imitation the conscious imitation of the classics then we know that it was a self conscious imitation and somewhere that national character of the literature was lost flawed somewhere it was at a way of imitation which gave a hurdle placed a hurdle to the presentation. It also speaks of the pros and verse of the age the emphasis is placed on the dramatic activities of restoration is specially the birth of new tragedy called the heroic tragedy and comedy called the comedy of manners on the decline and decay of drama during restoration age. The political time therefore, the reign of Queen Anne in early 18th century England was called the Augustine age and the style in motion employed Roman forms such as old emphasized common sense moderation the transitional period from rapid social development in England. They themselves began the task of learning out of living together the emancipation of the political parties by the year 1700 the weak parties stood for preeminence of personal freedom as opposed to have never of you know variant succession the spirit of the age the clubs and the coffee houses periodicals and publishing houses the new morality. So, the transition between the Augustine period and the romantic period was a drastic safety literary ideals. We will see in the next lecture the Augustines followed the works of former classical writers to them this was the proper and only way to write they followed the views of Aristotle and therefore, we have to see how we look into this age and how it became the precursor of the next age. So, in the discussion let us see describe briefly the social development of the 18th century what effect did this have on literature what accounts for the prevalence of prose why was it that prose became the hallmark of that age what influence did the first newspapers exert on life and literature. How do the readers of this is compare with those of the age of Elizabeth and when you do the different stages of English history especially the history of English literature you will have to see the different genres that has become very prominent during this ages. How do you explain the fact the satire was largely based in both prose and poetry named the principles satires of the age whether it was in drama whether it was in poetry or whether it was in prose. What is the meaning of the term classicism as applied to the literature of this age did the classicism of Johnson for instance have any relation to classical literature in its true sense. You have to go and explore how the classical literature of the Latin period of their page of the period of Augustus had the same elements of Decorum or elegance of prose or the system of writing. Why is this period called the Augustan age why was Shakespeare not regarded by this age as a classical writer in what respect spoke by unique writer. How does he reflect a critical spirit of his age in different ways whether it is in his poetry or in his prose what are the shift characteristics of his poetry what great work did Addison and still do for literature. So, they were the beginners of the initiators of the of the journals of Tassis how is their work a preparation for the novel. For what is Dr. Johnson's famous in literature can explain his great influence you know not only was he a hallmark you can call him a pioneer an icon in biography, but also in the way that he was the first who had brought out the dictionary. What is meant by the modern novel how does it differ from the early romances and from the adventure story. Refer text especially if you want to look into any history of English literature one text that you will find very very helpful for you especially for engineering students is Edward Albert's history of English literature and William J. Long's English literature is history and significance. If you want to see the English social history then read G. M. Travelline's then A. W. Ward's canvas history of English literature David Dysos which is a must for every student of English literature, but you can also go through that critical history of English literature which is in four volumes and Margaret Drabble then Robert Sol's elements of literature where you see how literature is to be enjoyed and how you can give more time to understanding different texts. Thank you.