 Philosophy of Style, Part 1, Section 1. The Philosophy of Style by Herbert Spencer, Part 1, Causes of Force in Language which depend upon economy of the mental energies. Section 1, Division 1, Paragraph 1. Commenting on the seeming incongruity between his father's argumentive powers and his ignorance of formal logic, Tristan Shanti says, "'It was a matter of just wonder, with my worthy tutor and two or three fellows of that learned society, that a man who knew not so much as the names of his tools should be able to work after that fashion with them.' Tristan's intended implication that a knowledge of the principles of reasoning neither makes nor is essential to a good reasoner is doubtless true. Thus too is it with grammar. As Mr. Latham, condemning the usual school drill in Lindy Murray, rightly remarks, "'Gross vulgarity is a fault to be prevented, but the proper prevention is to be got from habit, not rules.' Similarly there can be little question that good composition is far less dependent upon acquaintance with its laws than upon practice and natural aptitude. A clearhead, a quick imagination, and a sensitive ear will go far toward making all rhetorical precepts needless. He who daily hears and reads well-framed sentences will naturally more or less tend to use similar ones, and where there exists any mental idiosyncrasy, whether there is a deficient verbal memory or an inadequate sense of logical dependence, or but little perception of order, or a lack of constructive ingenuity, no amount of instruction will remedy the defect. Nevertheless, some practical result may be expected from a familiarity with the principles of style. The endeavor to conform to laws may tell, though slowly, and, if in no other way, yet as facilitating revision, a knowledge of the thing to be achieved, a clear idea of what constitutes a beauty and what a blemish, cannot fail to be of service. Paragraph 2 No general theory of expression seems yet to have been enunciated. The maxims contained in works on composition and rhetoric are presented in an unorganized form. Standing as isolated dogmas, as empirical generalizations, they are neither so clearly apprehended, nor so much respected, as they would be were they deduced from some simple first principle. We are told that brevity is the soul of wit. We hear styles condemned as verbose or involved. Blair says that every needless part of a sentence interrupts the description and clogs the image, and again that long sentences fatigue the reader's attention. It is remarked by Lord Cames that, to give the utmost force to a period, it ought, if possible, to be closed with that word which makes the greatest figure. That parenthesis should be avoided, and that Saxon words should be used in preference to those of Latin origin, are established precepts. But however influential the truths thus dogmatically embodied, they would be much more influential if reduced to something like scientific ordination. In this, as in other cases, conviction will be greatly strengthened when we understand the why, and we may be sure that a comprehension of the general principle from which the rules of composition result will not only bring them home to us with greater force, but will discover to us other rules of like origin. Paragraph 3 On seeking for some clue to the law underlying these current maxims, we may see shadowed forth in many of them the importance of economizing the reader's or hearer's attention, to so present ideas that they may be apprehended with the least possible mental effort, is the desistratum toward which most of the rules above quoted point. When we condemn writing that is wordy, or confused, or intricate, when we praise this style as easy, and blame that as fatiguing, we, consciously or unconsciously, assume this desistratum as our standard of judgment. Regarding language as an apparatus of symbols for the conveyance of thought, we may say that, as in a mechanical apparatus, the more simple and the better arranged its parts, the greater will be the effect produced. In either case, whatever force is absorbed by the machine is deduced from the result. A reader or listener has at each moment but a limited amount of mental power available. To recognize and interpret the symbols presented to him requires part of his power to arrange and combine the images suggested, requires a further part, and only that part which remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. Hence the more time and attention it takes to receive and understand each sentence, the less time and attention can be given to the contained idea, and the less vividly will that idea be conceived. Paragraph 4 How truly language must be regarded as a hindrance to thought, though the necessary instrument of it. We shall clearly perceive on remembering the comparative force with which simple ideas were communicated by signs, to say, leave the room, is less expressive than to point to the door. Placing a finger on the lips is more forcible than whispering, do not speak. A beck of the hand is better than come here. No phrase can convey the idea of surprise so vividly as opening the eyes and raising the eyebrows. A shrug of the shoulders would lose much by translation into words. Again, it may be remarked that when oral language is employed the strongest effects are produced by interjections which condense entire sentences into syllables, and in other cases where custom allows us to express thoughts by single words as in beware, hyho, fudge. Much force would be lost by expanding them into scientific propositions, hence carrying out the metaphor that language is the vehicle of thought, there seems reason to think that in all cases the friction and inertia of the vehicle deduct from its efficiency, and that in composition the chief, if not the sole thing to be done, is to reduce this friction and inertia to the smallest possible amount. Let us then inquire whether economy of the recipient's attention is not the secret of effect alike in the right choice and collocation of words, in the best arrangement of clauses in a sentence, in the proper order of its principal and subordinate propositions, in the judicious use of simile, metaphor, and other figures of speech, and even in the rhythmical sequence of syllables. Section 2, Economy in the Use of Words, paragraph 5. The greater forcibleness of Saxon English or rather non-Latin English first claims our attention. The several special reasons assignable for this may all be reduced to the general reason, economy. The most important of them is early association. A child's vocabulary is almost wholly Saxon. He says, I have, not, I possess, I wish, not, I desire. He does not reflect, he thinks. He does not beg for amusement, but for play. He calls things nice or nasty, not pleasant or disagreeable. The synonyms which he learns in after years never become so closely or organically connected with the ideas signified as do these original words used in childhood. And hence, the association remains less strong. But in what does a strong association between a word and an idea differ from a weak one? Simply in the greater ease and rapidity of the suggestive action. It can be nothing else. Both of two words, if they be strictly synonymous, eventually call up the same image. The expression, it is acid, must in the end give rise to the same thought as it is sour. But because the term acid was learned later in life, and has not been so often followed by the thought symbolized, it does not so readily arouse that thought as the term sour. If we remember how slowly and with what labor the appropriate ideas follow unfamiliar words in another language, and how increasing familiarity with such words brings greater rapidity and ease of comprehension, and if we consider that the same process must have gone on with the words of our mother tongue from childhood upwards, we shall clearly see that the easiest learned and often used words will, other things equal, call up images with less loss of time and energy than their later learned synonyms. Paragraph 6. The further superiority possessed by Saxon English in its comparative brevity obviously comes under the same generalization. If it be an advantage to express an idea in the smallest number of words, then will it be an advantage to express it in the smallest number of syllables. If circuitous phrases and needless expletives distract the attention and diminish the strength of the impression produced, then do surplus articulations do so. A certain effort, though commonly an unappreciated one, must be required to recognize every vowel and consonant. If, as all know, it is tiresome to listen to an indistinct speaker or read a badly written manuscript, and if, as we cannot doubt, the fatigue is a cumulative result of the attention needed to catch successive syllables, it follows that attention is in such cases absorbed by each syllable, and if this be true, when the syllables are different of recognition, it will also be true, though in a less degree, when the recognition of them is easy. Hence, the shortness of Saxon words becomes a reason for their greater force. One qualification, however, must not be overlooked. A word which in itself embodies the most important part of the idea to be conveyed, especially when that idea is an emotional one, may often with advantage be a polycebolic word. Thus, it seems more forcible to say it is magnificent than it is grand. The word vast is not so powerful, a one as stupendous. Saying a thing nasty is not so effective as calling it disgusting. Paragraph 7 There seems to be several causes for this exceptional superiority of certain long words. We may ascribe it partly to the fact that a voluminous, mouth-filling epithet is by its very size suggestive of largeness or strength, witness the immense propensity of sesquidillion verbiage, and when great power or intensity has to be suggested, this association of ideas adds to the effect. A further cause may be that a word of several syllables admits of more emphatic articulation, and as emphatic articulation is a sign of emotion, the unusual impressiveness of the thing named is implied by it. That another cause is that a long word, of which the latter syllables are generally inferred as soon as the first are spoken, allows the Herrera's consciousness a longer time to dwell upon the quality predicated, and where, as in the above case, it is to this predicated quality that the entire attention is called and advantage results from keeping it before the mind for an appreciable time. The reasons which we have given for preferring short words evidently do not hold here. For that to make our generalization quite correct, we must say that while in certain sentences expressing strong feelings, the word which more especially implies that feeling may often with advantage be a many-syllable or Latin one. In the immense majority of cases, each word serving but as a step to the idea embodied by the whole sentence should, if possible, be a one-syllable or Saxon one. Paragraph 8. Once more, that frequent cause of strength in Saxon and other primitive words, their imitative character may be similarly resolved into the more general cause, both those directly imitative as splash, bang, whiz, roar, etc., and those analogically imitative as cough, smooth, keen, blunt, thin, hard, crag, etc., having a greater or less likeness to the things symbolized, and by making on the senses impressions allied to the ideas to be called up. They save part of the effort indeed to call up such ideas and leave more attention to the ideas themselves. Paragraph 9. The economy of the recipient's mental energy into which are thus resolved the several causes of the strength of Saxon English may equally be traced in the superiority of specific over-generic words. That concrete terms produce more vivid impressions than abstract ones, and should when possible be used instead is a thorough maxim of composition. As Dr. Campbell says, the more general the terms are, the picture is the fainter. The more special they are, tis the brighter. We should avoid such a sentence as, in proposition as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be severe. And in place of it we should write, in proposition as men delight in battles, bullfights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. Paragraph 10. This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to a saving of the effort required to translate words into thoughts, as we do not think in generals, but in particulars. As whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it. It follows that when an abstract word is used, the bearer or reader has to choose from his stock of images one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended, and if, by employing a specific term, an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced. In three, the principle of economy applied to sentences. Paragraph 11. Turning now from the choice of words to their sequence, we shall find the same general principle hold good. We have a priori, reasons for believing that in every sentence there is some one order of words more effective than any other, and that this order is the one which presents the elements of the proposition in the succession in which they may be most readily put together. As in a narrative, the events should be stated in such sequence that the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order to rightly connect them. As in a group of sentences, the arrangement should be such, and that of them may be understood as it comes, without waiting for subsequent ones. So in every sentence, the sequence of words should be that which suggests the constituents of the thought in the order most convenient for the building up of that thought. Duly to enforce this truth, and to prepare the way for applications of it, we must briefly inquire into the mental act by which the meaning of a series of words is apprehended. Paragraph 12. We cannot more simply do this than by considering the proper collocation of the substantive and adjective. Is it better to place the adjective before the substantive, or the substantive before the adjective? Aught we to say, with the French, un chevelneur, or to say as we do, a black horse. Probably most persons of culture would decide that one order is as good as the other, alive to the basis produced by habit. They should describe to it the preference they feel for our own form of expression. They would expect those educated in the use of the opposite form to have an equal preference for that, and thus they would conclude that neither of these instinctive judgments is of any worth. There is, however, a philosophical ground for deciding in favor of the English custom. If a horse black be the arrangement, immediately on the utterance of the word horse, there arises, or tends to arise, in the mind, a picture answering to that word, and as there has been nothing to indicate what kind of horse any image of a horse suggests itself. Very likely, however, the image will be that of a brown horse, brown horses being the most familiar. The result is that when the word black is added, a check is given to the process of thought. Either the picture of a brown horse already present to the imagination has to be suppressed, and the picture of a black one summoned in its place, or else, if the picture of a brown horse be yet unformed, the tendency to form it has to be stopped. Whichever is the case, a certain amount of hindrance results. Not if, on the other hand, a black horse be the expression used, no such mistake can be made. The word black, indicating an abstract quality, arouses no definite idea. It simply prepares the mind for conceiving some object of that color, and the attention is kept suspended until that object is known. If then, by the presence of the adjective, the idea is conveyed without liability to error. Whereas, the precedence of the substantive is apt to produce a misconception. It follows that the one gives the mind less trouble than the other, and is therefore more forcible. Paragraph 13. Possibly it will be objected that the adjective and substantive come so close together that practically they may be considered as uttered in the same moment, and that on hearing the phrase, a horse black, there is not time to imagine a wrongly colored horse before the word black follows to prevent it. It must be owed that it is not easy to decide by introspection whether this is or not, but there are facts collaterally implying that it is not. Our ability to anticipate the words yet unspoken is one of them. If the ideas of the hearer kept considerably behind the expression of the seeker as the objection assumes, he could hardly foresee the end of the sentence by the time it was half delivered. Yet this constantly happens. Were the supposition true, the mind instead of anticipating would be continually falling more and more in a rear. If the meanings of the words are not realized as fast as the words are uttered, then the loss of time over each word must entail such an accumulation of delays as to leave the hearer entirely behind. But whether the force of these replies be or be not admitted, it will scarcely be denied that the right formulation of a picture will be facilitated by presenting its elements in the order in which they are wanted, even though the mind should do nothing until it has received them all. Paragraph 14 What is hearsaid respecting the succession of the adjective and substantive is obviously applicable by change of terms to the adverb and verb, and without further explanation it will be manifest that in the use of prepositions and other particles most languages spontaneously conform with more or less completeness to this law. Paragraph 15 On applying a like analysis to the larger divisions of a sentence, we find not only that the same principle holds good, but that the advantage of respecting it becomes marked. In the arrangement of predicate and subject, for example, we are at once shown that the predicate determines the aspect under which the subject is to be conceived, it should be placed first, and the striking effect produced by so placing it becomes comprehensible. Like the oft quoted contrast between great is Diana of the Ephesians and Diana of the Ephesians is great. When the first arrangement is used, the utterance of the word great arouses those vague associations of an impressive nature with which it has been habitually connected. The imagination is prepared to clothe with high attributes whatever follows, and when the words Diana of the Ephesians are heard all the appropriate imagery which can on that instant be summoned is used in the formulation of the picture, the mind being thus led directly and without error to the intended impression. When on the contrary the reverse order is followed, the idea Diana of the Ephesians is conceived with no special reference to greatness, and when the words is great are added the conception has to be remodeled, whence arises a loss of mental energy and a corresponding diminution of effect. The following verse from Coleridge's ancient mariner, though somewhat irregular in structure, will illustrate the same truth. Alone, alone, all, all, alone, alone on a wide, wide sea, and never a saint took pity on my soul in agony. Chapter 16 Of course the principle equally applies when the predicate is a verb or a participle, and as effect is gained by placing first all words indicating the quality, conduct, or condition of the subject, it follows that the copula also should have precedent. It is true that the general habit of our language resists this arrangement of predicate, copula, and subject. But we may readily find instances of the additional force gained by conforming to it. Thus in a line from Julius Caesar, he burst his mighty heart. Priority is given to the word embodying both predicate and copula. In a passage contained in the battle of Floddenfield, the like order is systematically employed with great effect. The border slogan rent the sky, a home, a gordon, was the cry. Loud were the clanging blows, advanced, force-backed, now low, now high, the pennon sunk and rose, and bends the barks massed in the gale, where rent are rigging, shrouds and sail, it wavers mid the foes. Pursuing the principle yet further, it is obvious that for producing the greater effect, not only should the main divisions of a sentence observe this sequence, but the subdivisions of these should be similarly arranged. In nearly all cases, the predicate is accompanied by some limit or qualification, called its complement. Commonly also, the circumstances of the subject, which form its complement, have to be specified, and as these qualifications and circumstances must determine the mode in which the acts and things they belong to are conceived, precedent should be given to them. Lord Kymes notices the fact that this order is preferable, though without giving the reason. He says, when a circumstance is placed at the beginning of the period, or near the beginning, the transition from it to the principal subject is agreeable. It is like ascending or going upward. A sentence arranged in illustration of this will be desirable. Here is one. Whatever it may be in theory, it is clear that in practice the French idea of liberty is the right of every man to be master of the rest. Paragraph 18. In this case, where the first two clauses up to the word I practice, inclusive which qualify the subject to be placed at the end instead of the beginning, much of the force would be lost, and thus the French idea of liberty is the right of every man to be master of the rest, in practice at least, if not in theory. Paragraph 19. Similarly with respect to the conditions under which any fact is predicated, observe in the following example the effect of putting them last. How immense would be the stimulus to progress were the honor now given to wealth and title given exclusively to high achievements and intrinsic worth. Paragraph 20. And then observe the superior effect of putting them first, were the honor now given to wealth and title given exclusively to high achievements and intrinsic worth, how immense would be the stimulus to progress. The effect of giving priority to the compliment of the predicate, as well as the predicate itself, is finally displayed in the opening of Hyperion. Deep in the shady sadness of a veil, far sunken from the healthy breath of mourn, far from the fiery noon, and aves one star, sat gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone. Here it will be observed not only that the predicate sat precedes the subject Saturn, and that the three lines in italics constitute the compliment of the predicate, come before it, but that in the structure of the compliment also the same order is followed, each line being so arranged that the qualifying words are placed before the words suggesting concrete images. Paragraph 22. The right succession of the principle and subordinate propositions in a sentence manifestly depends on the same law, regard for economy of the recipient's attention which, as we find, determines the best order for the subject, copula, predicate, and their compliments dictates that the subordinate proposition shall precede the principle one when the sentence includes two. Retaining as the subordinate proposition does, some qualifying or explanatory idea, its priority prevents misconception of the principle one, and therefore saves the mental effort needed to correct such misconception. This will be seen in the annexed example. The secrecy once maintained in respect to the parliamentary debates is still thought needful in diplomacy, and in virtue of this secret diplomacy England may any day be unawares betrayed by its ministers into a war costing a hundred thousand lives and hundreds of millions of treasure, yet the English peak themselves on being a self-governed people. The two subordinate propositions, ending with the semicolon and colon respectively, almost wholly determine the meaning of the principle proposition with which it concludes, and the effect would be lost were they placed last instead of first. Paragraph 23 The general principle of right arrangement in sentences which we have traced in its application to the leading divisions of them equally determines the proper order of their minor divisions. In any sentence of any complexity, the complement to the subject contains several clauses and that to the predicate several others, and these may be arranged in greater or less conformity to the law of easy apprehension. Of course, with these, as with the larger members, the succession would be from the least specific to the more specific from the abstract to the concrete. Paragraph 24 Now, however, we must notice a further condition to be fulfilled in the proper construction of a sentence, but still a condition dictated by the same general principle with the other, the condition namely that the words and expressions most nearly related in thought shall be brought the closest together. Eventually the single words, the minor clauses, and the leading divisions of every proposition separately qualify each other. The longer the time that elapses between the mention of any qualifying member and the member qualified, the longer must the mind be exerted in carrying forward the qualifying member ready for use. And the more numerous the qualifications to be simultaneously remembered and rightly applied, the greater will be the mental power expended and the smaller the effort produced. Hence, other things equal, force will be gained by so arranging the members of a sentence that these suspensions shall at any moment be the fewest in number and shall also be of the shortest duration. The following is an instance of defective combination. A modern newspaper statement, though probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony. But the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago. A rearrangement of this, in accordance with the principle indicated above, will be found to increase the effect, thus, though probably true, a modern newspaper statement quoted in a book as testimony would be laughed at. But the letter of a court gossip, if written some centuries ago, is thought good historical evidence. Paragraph 25. By making this change, some of the suspensions are avoided and others shortened, while there is less liability to produce premature conceptions. The passage quoted below from Paradise Lost affords a fine instance of a sentence well arranged, alike in the priority of the subordinate members, in the avoidance of long and numerous suspensions, and in the correspondence between the order of the clauses and the sequence of the phenomenon described, which, by the way, is a further prerequisite to easy comprehension and, therefore, to effect. As when a prowling wolf, whom hunger drives to seek new haunt for prey, watching where shepherds bend their flocks at eye, in hurtled coats amid the field secure, leaps or the fence, with ease into the fold, or as a thief bent to unhorde the cash of some rich burger, whose substantial doors cross-barred and bolted fast, fear no assault, in at the window climbs or air the tiles, so comb his first grand thief into God's fold, so sense into his church lewd hirelings climb. Paragraph 26. The habitual use of sentences in which all or most of the descriptive and limiting elements precede those described and limited gives rise to what is called an inverted style, a title which is, however, by no means confused to its structure, but is often used where the order of the words is simply unusual. A more appropriate title would be the direct style, as contrasted with the other or indirect style. The peculiarity of the one being that it conveys each thought into the mind step by step with little liability to error, and the other that it gets the right thought conceived by a series of approximations. Paragraph 27. The superiority of the direct over the indirect form of sentence, implied by the several conclusions that had been drawn, must not, however, be affirmed without reservation. Though up to a certain point it is well for the qualifying clauses of a period to precede those qualified, yet as carried forward each qualifying clause costs some mental effort. It follows that when the number of them and the time they are carried become great, we reach a limit beyond which more is lost than is gained. Other things equal. The arrangement should be such that no concrete image shall be suggested until the materials out of which it is to be made have been presented, and yet, as lately pointed out, other things equal, the fewer the materials to be held at once and the shorter the distance they have to be borne, the better. Hence in some cases it becomes a question whether most mental effort will be entailed by the many and long suspensions or by the correction of successive misconceptions. Section 1. The Philosophy of Style. Part 1. Section 2. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Philosophy of Style by Herbert Spencer. Part 1. Causes of force in language which depend upon economy of the mental energies. Paragraph 28. This question may sometimes be decided by considering the capacity of the person's addressed. A greater grasp of mind is required for the ready comprehension of thoughts expressed in the direct manner, where the sentences are anywhere intricate. To recollect a number of preliminaries stated in elucidation of a coming idea, and to apply them all to the formation of it when suggested demands a good memory and considerable power of concentration. To one possessing these the direct method will mostly seem the best, while to one deficient in them it will seem the worst. Just as it may cost a strong man less effort to carry a hundred weight from place to place at once than by a stone at a time, so to an active mind it may be easier to hear along all the qualifications of an idea, and at once rightly form it when named, than to first imperfectly conceive such idea and then carry back to it one by one. The details and limitations afterward mentioned. While conversely, as for a boy, the only possible mode of transferring a hundred weight is that of taking it in proportions, so, for a weak mind, the only possible mode of forming a compound conception may be that of building it up by carrying separately its several parts. Paragraph 29. That the indirect method, the method of conveying the meaning by a series of approximations is best fitted for the uncultivated, may indeed be inferred from their habitual use of it. The form of expression adopted by the savage, as in, water, give me, is the simplest type of the approximate arrangement. In pleonams, which are comparatively prevalent among the uneducated, the same essential structure is seen. As for instance in, the men, they were there. Again, the old possessive case, the king, his crown, conforms to the like order of thought. Moreover, the fact that the indirect mode is called the natural one implies that it is the one spontaneously employed by the common people. That is, the one easiest for undisciplined minds. Paragraph 30. There are many cases, however, in which neither the direct nor the indirect structure is the best, but where an intermediate structure is preferable to both. When the number of circumstances and qualifications to be included in the sentence is great, the most judicious course is neither to enumerate them all before introducing the idea to which they belong, nor to put this idea first and let it be remodeled to agree with the particulars afterward mentioned, but to do a little of each. Take a case. It is desirable to avoid so extremely indirect an arrangement as the following. We came to our journey's end at last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather. Yet to transform this into an entirely direct sentence would not produce a satisfactory effect, as witness. At last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather, we came to our journey's end. Paragraph 31. Dr. Waitley, from whom we quote the first of these two arrangements, proposes this construction. At last, after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather, we came, with no small difficulty, to our journey's end. Here it will be observed that by introducing the words, we came, a little earlier in the sentence, the labor of carrying forward so many particulars is diminished, and the subsequent qualifications, with no small difficulty, entails an addition to the thought that is very easily made. But a further improvement may be produced by introducing the words, we came, still earlier, especially if, at the same time, the qualifications be rearranged in conformity with the principle already explained, that the more abstract elements of the thought should come before the more concrete. In fact, we have the better effect obtained by making these two arrangements. At least, with no small difficulty, and after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads and bad weather, to our journey's end. This reads with comparative smoothness, that is, with less hindrance from suspensions and reconstructions of thought, with less mental effort. Paragraph 32. Before dismissing this branch of our subject, it should be further remarked that even when addressing the most vigorous intellects, the direct style is unfit for communicating ideas of a complex or abstract character. So long as the mind has not much to do, it may be well able to grasp all the preparatory clauses of a sentence, and to use them effectively. But if some subtlety in the argument absorbs the attention, if every faculty be strained in endeavoring to catch the speaker's or writer's drift, it may happen that the mind, unable to carry on both processes at once, will break down, and allow the elements of the thought to lapse into confusion. Division 4. The Principle of Economy Applied to Figures. Paragraph 33. Turning now to consider figures of speech, we may equally discern the same general law of effect. After lying all the rules given for the choice and right use of them, we shall find the same fundamental requirement, economy of attention. It is indeed chiefly because they so well subserve this requirement that figures of speech are employed. To bring the mind more easily to the desired conception is in many cases solely and in all cases mainly their object. Paragraph 34. Let us begin with the figure called Synictiki. The advantage, sometimes gained by putting a part for the whole, is due to the more convenient, more accurate presentation of the idea. If instead of saying, a fleet of ten ships, we say, a fleet of ten sail, the picture of a group of vessels at sea is more readily suggested, and is so because the sails constitute the most conspicuous part of the vessels, so circumstance'd. Whereas the word ships would very likely remind us of vessels in dock. Again to say, all hands to the pumps is better than to say, all men to the pumps, as it suggests the men in the special attitude intended, and so saves effort. Bringing gray hairs with sorrows to the grave is another expression, the effect of which has the same cause. Paragraph 35. The occasional increase of force produced by metonymy may be similarly accounted for. The low morality of the bar is a phrase more brief and significant than the literal one it stands for. A belief in the ultimate supremacy of intelligence over brute force is conveyed in a more concrete and therefore more realizable form if we substitute the pen and the sword for two abstract terms to say, beware of drinking is less effective than to say, beware of the bottle, and is so clearly because it calls up a less specific image. Paragraph 36. The simile is in many cases used chiefly with a view to ornament, but whenever it increases the force of a passage, it does so by being an economy. Here is an instance. The illusion that great men and great events came oftener in the early times than now is partly due to historical perspective. As in a range of equidistant columns, the furthest off look the closest, so the conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly clustered the more remote they are. Paragraph 37. To construct by a process of literal explanation, the thought thus conveyed would take many sentences and the first elements of the picture would become faint while the imagination was busy in adding the others. But by the help of a comparison, all effort is saved and the picture is instantly recognized and its full effect produced. Paragraph 38. Of the position of the simile, it needs only to remark that what has been said respecting the order of the adjective and substantive, predicate and subject, principle and subordinate propositions, etc., is applicable here. As whatever qualifies should precede whatever is qualified, force will generally be gained by placing the simile before the object to which it is applied. That this arrangement is the best may be seen by the following passage from the Lady of the Lake. As wreath of snow on mountain breast slides from the rock that gave it rest, poor Ellen glided from her stay, and at the monarch's feet she lay. Inverting these couplets will be found to diminish the effect considerably. There are cases, however, even where the simile is a simple one, in which it may, with advantage, be placed last, as in these lines from Alexander Smith's life drama, I see the future stretch, all dark and barren as a rainy sea. The reason for this seems to be that so abstract an idea as that attaching to the word future does not present itself to the mind in any definite form, and hence the subsequent arrival of the simile entails no reconstruction of the thought. Paragraph 39. Such, however, are not the only cases in which this order is the most forcible. As the advantage of putting the simile before the object depends on its being carried forward in the mind to assist in forming an image of the object, it must happen that if, from length or complexity, it cannot be so carried forward, the advantage is not gained. The annexed sonnet by Coleridge is defective from this cause. As when a child on some long winter's night, affrighted, clinging to its grandma's knees, with eager wondering and perturbed delight, listens strange tales of fearful dark decrees, muttered to wretch by necromatic spell, or those hags who at the witching time of murky midnight ride the air sublime, and mingle foul embrace with friends of hell, cold horror drinks its blood, anon the tear, more gentle starts to hear the bedlam tell of pretty babes that loved each other dear, murdered by cruel uncle's mandate fell, even such the shivering joys thy tones impart, even so thou Sidon's melt my sad heart. Paragraph 40. Here from the lapse of time and accumulation of circumstances, the first part of the comparison is forgotten before its application is reached, and requires rereading. Had the main idea been first mentioned, less effort would have been required to retain it, and to modify the conception of it into harmony with the comparison, than to remember the comparison and refer back to its successive features for help informing the final image. Paragraph 41. The superiority of the metaphor to the simile, as ascribed by Dr. Waitley, to the fact that all men are more gratified at catching the resemblance for themselves than in having it pointed out to them. But after what has been said, the great economy it achieves will seem the more probable cause. Lear's explanation, in gratitude thou marble-hearted fiend, would lose part of its effect were it changed into ingratitude thou fiend with heart-like marble, and the loss would result partly from the position of the simile, and partly from the extra number of words required. When the comparison is an involved one, the greater force of the metaphor, consequent on its greater brevity, becomes much more conspicuous. If drawing an analogy between mental and physical phenomena we say, as, in passing through the crystal, beams of white light are decomposed into the colors of the rainbow, so in traversing the soul of the poet the colorless rays of truth are transformed into brightly tinted poetry. It is clear that in receiving the double set of words expressing the two halves of the comparison, and in carrying the one half to the other considerable attention is absorbed. Most of this is saved, however, by putting the comparison in a metaphorical form, thus the white light of truth in traversing the many-sided transparent soul of the poet is refracted into iris-hued poetry. Paragraph 42. How much is conveyed in a few words by the help of the metaphor, and how vivid the effect consequently produced, may be abundantly exemplified. From a life drama may be quoted the phrase, I speared him with a jest, and as a fine instance among the many which that poem contains, a passage in the Prometheus unbound of Shelley displays the power of the metaphor to great advantage. Me thought among the lawns together we wandered underneath the young grey dawn, and multitudes of dense white fleecy clouds were wandering in thick flocks along the mountains, shepherded by the slow unwilling wind. This last expression is remarkable for the distinctness with which it realises the features of the scene, bringing the mind as it were by abound to the desired conception. Paragraph 43. But a limit is put to the advantageous use of the metaphor by the condition that it must be sufficiently simple to be understood from a hint. Evidently, if there is any obscurity in the meaning or application of it, no economy of attention will be gained, but rather the reverse. Hence, when the comparison is complex, it is usual to have recourse to the simile. There is, however, a species of figure, sometime classed under allegory, which might, perhaps, be better called compound metaphor, that enables us to retain the brevity of the metaphorical form even where the analogy is intricate. This is done by indicating the application of the figure at the outset and then leaving the mind to continue the parallel. Emerson has employed it with great effect in the first of his lectures on the times. The main interest which any aspect of the times can have for us is the great spirit which gazes through them, the light which they can shed on the wonderful questions. What are we and whether we tend? Do we not wish to be deceived? Here we drift, like white sail across the wild ocean, how bright on the wave, now darkling in the trough of the sea, but from what port did we sail? Who knows? Or to what port are we bound? Who knows? There is no one to tell us but such poor weather-tossed mariners as ourselves, whom we speak as we pass, or who have hoisted some signal, or floated to us some letter in a bottle from afar. But what know they more than we? They also found themselves on this wondrous sea. No, from the older sailors at nothing, over all their speaking trumpets, the grey sea and the loud winds answer, not in us, not in time. Paragraph 44 The division of the simile from the metaphor is by no means a definite one, between the one extreme in which the two elements of the comparison are detailed at full length, and the analogy pointed out, the other extreme in which the comparison is implied instead of stated come intermediate forms, in which the comparison is partly stated and partly implied. For instance, astonished at the performances of the English plow, the Hindus paint it, set it up, and worship it, thus turning a tool into an idol. Linguists do the same with language. There is an evident advantage in leaving the reader to hear or complete the figure, and generally these intermediate forms are good in proportion as they do this, provided the mode of completing it be obvious. Paragraph 45 Passing over much that may be said of like purport upon hyperbowl, personification, apostrophe, etc., let us close our remarks upon construction by a typical example. The general principle which has been enunciated is that other things equal the force of all verbal forms and arrangements is greater in proportion as the time and mental effort they demand from the recipient is small. The corollaries from this general principle have been severally illustrated, and it has been shown that the relative goodness of any two modes of expressing an idea may be determined by observing which requires the shortest process of thought for its comprehension. But though conformity in particular points has been exemplified, no cases of complete conformity have yet been quoted. It is indeed difficult to find them, for the English idiom does not commonly permit the order which theory dictates. A few, however, occur in ASEAN. Here is one. As autumn's dark storms pour from two echoing hills, so toward each other approached the heroes, as two dark streams from high rocks meet and mix, the roar on the plain, loud, rough, and dark in battle, meet locan and insiphel, as the troubled noise of the ocean when roll the waves on high, as the last peel of the thunder of heaven, such is noise of the battle. Paragraph 46 Except in the position of the verb in the first two similes, the theoretically best arrangement is fully carried out in each of these sentences. The simile comes before the qualified image, the adjectives before the substantives, the predicate and copula before the subject, and the respective complements before them, that the passage is open to the charge of being bombastic proves nothing, or rather proves our case. For what is bombast, but a force of expression too great for the magnitude of the ideas embodied? All that may rightly be inferred is that only in very rare cases, and then only to produce a climax, should all the conditions of effective expression be fulfilled. Division 5 Suggesting a Means of Economy Paragraph 47 Passing on to a more complex application of the doctrine with which we set out, it must now be remarked that not only in the structure of sentences and the use of figures of speech may economy of the recipient's mental energy be assigned as the cause of force, but that in the choice and arrangement of the minor images, out of which some large thought is to be built up, we may trace the condition to effect, to select from the sentiment, scene, or event described, whose typical elements which carry many others along with them, and so by saying a few things, but suggesting many to abridge the description is the secret of producing a vivid impression. An extract from Tennyson's Mariana will well illustrate this. All day within the dreamy house, the door upon the hinges creaked. The blue fly sung, I, the pain, the mouse. Behind the mouldering wane scotch shrieked, or from the crevice peered about. Paragraph 48 Several circumstances here specified bring them many appropriate associations. Our attention is rarely drawn by the buzzing of a fly in a window, save when everything is still. While the inmates are moving about the house, mice usually keep silent, and it is only when extreme quietness reigns that they peep from their retreats. Hence each of the facts mentioned, presupposing numerous others, calls up with more or less distinctness, and revives the feeling of dull solitude with which they are connected in our experience. Were all these facts detailed instead of suggested, the attention would be so frittered away that little impression of dreariness could be produced. Similarly, in other cases, whatever the nature of the thought to be conveyed, this skillful selection of a few particulars which imply the rest is the key to success. In the choice of component ideas, as in the choice of expressions, the aim must be to convey the greatest quantity of thoughts with the smallest quantity of words. Paragraph 49 The same principle may in some cases be advantageously carried yet further, by indirectly suggesting some entirely distinct thought in addition to the one expressed. Thus, if we say, the head of a good classic is as full of ancient myths as that of a servant girl of ghost stories, it is manifest that besides the fact asserted, there is an implied opinion respecting the small value of classical knowledge, and as this implied opinion is recognized much sooner than it can be put into words, there is gain in omitting it. In other cases, again, great effect is produced by an overt omission, provided the nature of the idea left out is obvious. A good instance of this occurs in heroes and hero worship. After describing the way in which Burns was sacrificed to the idle curiosity of lion hunters, people who came not out of sympathy, but merely to see him, people who sought a little amusement, and who got their amusement while the hero's life went for it, Carlisle suggests a parallel thus. Richter says, in the island of Sumatra there is a kind of light-shafers, large fireflies which people stick upon spits and illuminate the ways with at night. Persons of condition can thus travel with a pleasant radiance which they much admire. Great honor to the fireflies, but, division 6, the effect of poetry explained, paragraph 50. Before inquiring whether the law of effect thus far traced explains the superiority of poetry to pose, it will be needful to notice some supplementary causes of force in expression that have not yet been mentioned. These are not properly speaking additional causes, but rather secondary ones, obtaining from those already specified reflex results of them. In the first place, then, we may remark that mental excitement spontaneously prompts the use of those forms of speech which have been pointed out as the most effective. Out with him, away with him, are the natural utterances of angry citizens at a disturbed meeting. A voyager, describing a terrible storm he had witnessed, would rise to some such climax as, Crack went the ropes and down went the mast. Astonishment may be heard expressed in the phrase, Never was there such a sight. All of which sentences are, it will be observed, constructed after the direct type. Again, everyone knows that excited persons are given to figures of speech. The vitrabation of the vulgar abounds with them, often indeed, consists of little else. Beast, brute, gallows rogue, cutthroat villains. These and other, like metaphors and metaphorical epithets, at once call to mind a street quarrel. Further, it may be noticed that the extreme brevity is another characteristic of passionate language. The sentences are generally incomplete, the particles are omitted, and frequently important words are left to be gathered from the context. Great admiration does not vent itself in a precise proposition as, It is beautiful, but in the simple exclamation, beautiful. He who, when reading a lawyer's letter would say, vile rascal, would be thought angry, while he is a vile rascal, would imply comparative coolness. Thus we see that alike in the order of the words, in the frequent use of figures, and in extreme conciseness, the natural utterances of excitement conform to the theoretical conditions of forcible expression. paragraph 51 Hence, when the higher forms of speech acquire a secondary strength from association, having an actual life, habitually heard them in connection with vivid mental impressions, and having been accustomed to meet them in the most powerful writing, they come to have in themselves a species of force. The emotions that have from time to time been produced by the strong thoughts wrapped up in these forms are partly aroused by the forms themselves. They create a certain degree of animation. They induce a preparatory sympathy. And when the striking ideas looked for are reached, they are the more vividly realized. paragraph 52 The continuous use of these modes of expression that are alike, forcible in themselves, and forcible from their associations, produces the peculiarly impressive species of composition, which we call poetry. Poetry, we shall find, habitually adopts these symbols of thought, and those methods of using them, which instinct and analysis agree in choosing as the most effective, and becomes poetry by virtue of doing this. On turning back to the various specimens that have been quoted, it will be seen that the direct or inverted form of sentence predominates in them, and that to a degree while inadmissible in prose, and not only in the frequency, but in what is termed the violence of the inversions, will this distinction be remarked. In the abundant use of figures again, we may recognize the same truth, metaphors, similes, hyperboles, and personifications, are the poet's colors, which he has liberty to employ almost without limit. We characterize as poetical the prose which uses these appliances of language with any frequency, and condemn it as overflorid or affected, long before they occur with the profusion allowed in verse. Further, let it be remarked that in brevity, the other requisite of forcible expression, which theory points out, and emotion spontaneously fulfills, poetical phraseology similarly differs from ordinary phraseology. Imperfect periods are frequent, illusions are perpetual, and many of the minor words which would be deemed essential in prose are dispensed with. Paragraph 53 Thus poetry, regarded as a vehicle of thought, is essentially impressive partly because it obeys all the laws of effective speech, and partly because, in so doing, it imitates the natural utterances of excitement. While the matter embodied is idealized emotion, the vehicle is the idealized language of emotion. As the musical composer catches the cadence in which our feelings of joy and sympathy, grief and despair vent themselves, and out of these germs evolves melodies suggesting higher phases of these feelings. So the poet develops from the typical expressions in which men utter passion and sentiment, those choice forms of verbal combination in which concentrated passion and sentiment may be fitly presented. Paragraph 54 There is one peculiarity of poetry, conducing much to its effect, the peculiarity which is indeed usually thought its characteristic one, still remaining to be considered. We mean its rhythmical structure. Thus improbable, though it seems, will be found to come under the same generalization with the others. Like each of them, it is an idealization of the natural language of strong emotion, which is known to be more or less metrical, if the emotion be not too violent. And like each of them, it is an economy of the reader's or hearer's attention. In the particular tone and manner we adopt in uttering versified language may be discerned its relationship to the feelings and the pleasure which its measured movement gives us, is ascribable to the comparative ease with which words metrically arranged can be recognized. Paragraph 55 This last position will scarcely be at once admitted, but a little explanation will show its reasonableness. For if, as we have seen, there is an expenditure of mental energy in the mere act of listening to verbal articulations, or in that silent repetition of them which goes on in reading, if the perceptive facilities must be an active exercise to identify every syllable, then any mode of so combining words as to present a regular recurrence of certain traits which the mind can anticipate will diminish that strain upon the attention required by the total irregularity of prose. Just as the body, in receiving a series of varying concussions, must keep the muscles ready to meet the most violent of them, as not knowing when such may come, so the mind in receiving unarranged articulations must keep its perspectives active enough to recognize the least easily caught sounds, and as, if the concussions recur with a definite order, the body may husband its forces by adjusting the resistance needful for each concussion, so if the syllables be rhythmically arranged, the mind may economize its energies by anticipating the attention required for each syllable. Paragraph 56. Far fetched though this idea will perhaps be thought, a little introspection will continence it. That we do take advantage of metrical language to adjust our perspective facilities to the force of the expected articulations is clear from the fact that we are bulked by halting versification. Much as the bottom of a flight of stairs a step more or less than we counted upon gives us a shock, so too does a misplaced accent or a supernumerary syllable. In the one case we know that there is an erroneous pre-adjustment, and we can scarcely doubt that there is one in the other. But if we habitually pre-adjust our perceptions to the measured movement of verse, the physical analogy above given renders it probable that by so doing we economize attention, and hence that metrical language is more effective than prose, because it enables us to do this. Paragraph 57. Were there space it might be worthwhile to inquire whether the pleasure we take in rhyme and also that which we take in euphemy are not partly ascribable to the same general cause? End of Part 1, Section 2. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. The Philosophy of Style by Herbert Spencer. Part 2. Causes of force in language which depend upon economy in the mental sensibilities. Division 1. Law of Mental Exhaustion and Repair. Paragraph 58. A few paragraphs only can be devoted to a second division of our subject that here presents itself. To pursue and detail the law of effect as applying to the larger features of composition would carry us beyond our limits. But we may briefly indicate a further aspect of the general principle hitherto traced out and hint a few of its wider applications. Paragraph 59. Thus far then we have considered only those causes of force in language which depend upon economy of the mental energies. We have now to glance at those which depend upon economy of the mental sensibilities. Questionable, though this division may be as a psychological one, it will yet serve roughly to indicate the remaining field of investigation. It will suggest that besides considering the extent to which any faculty or group of faculties is tasked in receiving a form of words and realizing its contained idea, we have to consider the state in which this faculty or group of faculties is left, and how the reception of subsequent sentences and images will be influenced by that state, without going at length into so wide a topic as the exercise of faculties and its reactive effects. It will be sufficient here to call to mind that every faculty, when in a state of normal activity, is most capable at the outset, and that the change in its condition, which ends in what we term exhaustion, begins simultaneously with its exercise. This generalization, with which we are all familiar in our bodily experiences, and which our daily language recognizes as true of the mind as a whole, is equally true of each mental power. From the simplest of the senses to the most complex of the sentiments, if we hold a flower to the nose for long, we become insensible to its scent. We say of a very brilliant flash of lightning that it blinds us, which means that our eyes have for a time lost their ability to perceive light. After eating a quantity of honey, we are apt to think our tea is without sugar. The phrase, a deafening roar, implies that men find a very loud sound temporarily incapacitates them for hearing faint ones. To a hand which has for some time carried a heavy body, small bodies afterwards lifted seem to have lost their weight. Now the truth at once recognized in these, its extreme manifestations may be traced throughout. It may be shown that alike in the reflective faculties, in the imagination, in the perceptions of the beautiful, in the ludicrous, the sublime, in the sentiments, the instincts, in all the mental powers, however we may classify them, action exhausts, and that in proportion as the action is violent, the subsequent prostration is great. Paragraph 60. Equally throughout the whole nature may be traced the law that exercised facilities are ever tending to resume their original state. Not only after continued rest do they regain their full power, but only do brief successions partially reinvigorate them. But even while they are in action, the resulting exhaustion is ever being neutralized. The two processes of waste and repair go on together, hence with facilities habitually exercised as the senses of all persons or the muscles of anyone who is strong, it happens that during moderate activity, the repair is so nearly equal to the waste that the demunation of power is scarcely appreciable. And it is only when the activity has been long continued, or has been very violent, that the repair becomes so far in a rear of the waste as to produce a perceptible prostration. In all cases, however, when by the action of a faculty, waste has been incurred, some lapse of time must take place before full efficiency can be reacquired, and this time must be long in proportion as the waste has been great. Division 2, Explanation of Climax, Antithesis, and Anticlimax. Paragraph 61. Keeping in mind these general truths, we shall be in a condition to understand certain causes of effect in composition now to be considered. Every perception received in every conception realized, entailing some amount of waste, or, as Leibig would say, some change of matter in the brain, and the efficiency of the faculties subject to this waste being thereby temporary, though often but momentarily diminished, the resulting partial inability must affect the acts of perception and conception that immediately succeed. And hence we may expect that the vividness with which images are realized will, in many cases, depend on the order of their presentation, even when one order is as convenient to the understanding as the other. Paragraph 62. There are sundry facts which alike illustrate this and are explained by it. Climax is one of them. The marked effect obtained by placing last the most striking of any series of images, and the weakness, often the ludicrous weakness, produced by reversing this arrangement, depends on the general law indicated. As immediately after looking at the sun we cannot perceive the light of a fire, while by looking at the fire first and the sun afterwards we can perceive both. So after receiving a brilliant or weighty or terrible thought, we cannot appreciate a less brilliant, less weighty, or less terrible one, while by reversing the order we can appreciate each. In antithesis, again, we may recognize the same general truth. The opposition of two thoughts that are the reverse of each other in some prominent trait ensures an impressive effect, and does this by giving a momentary relaxation to the faculties addressed. If, after a series of images of an ordinary character appealing in one moderate degree to the sentiment of reverence or approbation or beauty, the mind has presented to it a very insignificant, a very unworthy, or a very ugly image, the faculty of reverence or approbation or beauty, as the case may be, having for the time nothing to do, tends to resume its full power, and will immediately afterwards appreciate a vast, admirable, or beautiful image better than it would otherwise do. Conversely, where the idea of absurdity due to extreme insignificance is to be pronounced, it may greatly intensify by placing it after something highly impressive, especially if the form of phrase implies that something still more impressive is coming. Paragraph 63. Thus, we see that the phenomena of climax, antithesis, and anticlimax alike result from this general principle. Improbable as these momentary variations in susceptibility may seem, we cannot doubt their occurrence. When we contemplate the analogous variations in the susceptibility of the senses, referring once more to phenomena of vision, everyone knows that a patch of black on a white ground looks blacker, and a patch of white on a black ground looks whiter than elsewhere. As the blackness and the whiteness must really be the same, the only assignable cause for this is a difference in their actions upon us, dependent upon the different states of our faculties. It is simply a visual antithesis. Division three, need of a variety. Paragraph 64. But this extension of the general principle of economy, this further condition to the effective composition that the sensitiveness of the faculties must be continuously husband, includes much more than has been yet hinted. It implies not only that certain arrangements and certain juxtapositions of connected ideas are best, but that some modes of dividing and presenting a subject will be more striking than others, and that, too, irrespective of its logical cohesion. It shows why we must progress from the less interesting to the more interesting, and why not only the composition as a whole, but each of its successive proportions should tend towards a climax. At the same time, it forbids long continuity of the same kind of thought, or repeated production of like effects. It warns us against the error committed both by Pope in his poems and by Bacon in his essays, the error, namely, of consistently employing forcible forms of expression, and it points out that as the easiest posture by and by becomes fatiguing, and is with pleasure exchanged for one less easy, so the most perfectly constructed sentences will soon weary, and relief will be given by using those of an inferior kind. Paragraph 65. Further, we may infer from it not only that we should avoid generally combining our words in one manner, however good, or working out our figures and illustrations in one way, however telling, but that we should avoid anything like uniform adherence, even to the wider conditions of effect. We should not make every section of our subject progress in interest. We should not always rise to a climax. As we saw that, in single sentences, it is but rarely allowed to fulfill all the conditions to strength. So, in the larger sections of a composition, we must not often conform entirely to the law indicated. We must subordinate the component effect to the total effect. Paragraph 66. In deciding how practically to carry out the principles of artistic composition, we may derive help by bearing in mind a fact already pointed out, the fitness of certain verbal arrangements for certain kinds of thought. That consistent variety in the mode of presenting ideas which the theory demands will, in a great degree, result from a skillful adaptation of the form to the matter. We saw how the direct or inverted sentence is spontaneously used by excited people, and how their language is also characterized by figures of speech and by extreme brevity. Hence, these may, with advantage, predominate in emotional passages, and may increase as the emotion rises. On the other hand, for complex ideas, the indirect sentence seems to be the best vehicle. In conversation, the excitement produced by the near approach to a desired conclusion will often show itself in a series of short, sharp sentences. While in impressing a view already enunciated, we generally make our periods voluminous by piling thought upon thought. These natural modes of procedure may serve as guides in writing. Keen observation and skillful analysis would, in like manner, detect further peculiarities of expression produced by other attributes of mind and by paying due attention to all such traits. A writer possessed of sufficient versatility might make some approach to a completely organized work. Division 4, The Ideal Writer, paragraph 67. This species of composition, which the law of effect points out as the perfect one, is the one which hygiene tends naturally to produce. As we found that the kinds of sentences which are theoretically best are those generally employed by superior minds and by inferior minds when excitement has raised them, so we shall find that the ideal form for a poem, essay, or fiction is that which the ideal writer would evolve spontaneously. One in whom the powers of expression fully respond to the state of feeling would unconsciously use that variety in the mode of presenting his thoughts, which art demands. This consistent employment of one species of phraseology, which all have now to strive against, implies an undeveloped faculty of language. To have a specific style is to be poor in speech. If we remember that, in the far past men had only nouns and verbs to convey their ideas with, and that from then to now the growth has been towards a greater number of implements of thought, and consequently towards a greater complexity and variety in their combinations. We may infer that we are now, in our use of sentences, much what the primitive man was in his use of words, and that a continuance of the process that has hitherto gone on must produce increasing heterogeneity in our modes of expression. As now, in a fine nature, the play of the features, the tones of the voice, and its cadence, vary in harmony with every thought uttered. So, in one possessed of a fully developed power of speech, the mold in which each combination of words is cast will similarly vary with, and be appropriate to, the sentiment. Paragraph sixty-eight. That a perfectly endowed man must unconsciously write in all styles, we may infer from considering how styles originate. Why is Johnson pompous? Goldsmith simple. Why is one author abrupt, another rhythmical, another concise? Evidently in each case the habitual mode of utterance must depend upon the habitual balance of the nature. The predominant feelings have by use trained the intellect to represent them, and while long, though unconscious, discipline has made it do this efficiently, it remains from lack of practice incapable of doing the same for the less active feelings, and when these are excited, the usual verbal forms undergo but slight modification. Let the powers of speech be fully developed, however. Let the ability of the intellect to utter the emotions be complete, and this fixity of style will disappear. The perfect writer will express himself as Junius when in the Junius frame of mind. When he feels his lamb felt, we use a like familiar speech, and we'll fell into the ruggedness of Carlisle when in a Carlinian mood. Now he will be rhythmical, and now irregular. Here his language will be plain, and there ornate. Sometimes his sentences will be balanced, and other times unsymmetrical. For a while there will be considerable sameness, and then again great variety. His mode of expression naturally responding to his state of feeling. There will flow from his pen a composition changing to the same degree that the aspects of his subject change. He will thus without effort conform to what we have seen to be the laws of effect. And while his work presents to the reader that variety needful to prevent continuous exertion of the same faculties, it will also answer to the description of all highly organized products, both of man and of nature. It will not be a series of like parts simply placed in juxtaposition, but one whole made up of unlike parts that are mutually dependent.