 The quiz will be covering all the material I have covered until this morning, okay? So it's just going to be part one Which covers a quick introduction to basic concepts which include the modern state the origins and theories of expansion of the modern state second Theoretical approaches on conceptualizing democracy, right? How do we conceptualize democracy? Are there any different approaches to conceptualizing democracy one approach says outcomes the other approach says Procedures very good of the two approaches, which did we cover the most? We spent lots of time on Outcomes approach or the procedural approach on the procedural approach. Thank you very much. So If I were you I would expect a question on that, right? and Thirdly last time we covered Majoritarian versus consensual models of democracy. So what are the different ways of organizing your democracies? How do you draft a constitution? What are the principles of? Drafting certain types of constitutions So ladies and gentlemen Three readings Three issue areas Please do your readings carefully And especially focus on the bits. I have emphasized in class Okay, the readings will help you I always receive very good feedback from these readings It may look dull and dry at in the first instance, but these readings are really You know, we take them from the horse's mouth to speak. Okay, so so please Please follow them. Please read them Think about them reflect on them Talk to your friends about them talk to your parents about them So that you you really digest the material. I Really find it very important To digest this material before we start Discussing what we shall be starting discussing today. Okay, so so that we are on the same level playing field any questions from last time Consentral democracy or consensus democracy sometimes referred to as Conssociational Democracy versus majoritarian models of democracy Well, I hope everything was quite clear by now But if there are any questions ladies and gentlemen, I do hold office hours after I mean on Fridays After three thirty three thirty three thirty five three forty so so Please come and visit me I Have generally quite a few visitors But I'll try to make time for you if you cannot absolutely make it to those office hours Please write me. I mean drop me a line by email for example so that we can make up I mean we can you know make an appointment and then We can we can discuss matters That are of interest to you as well as me any other questions About the quiz The quiz will be technical So you need to do your readings? The readings are very important Okay, I hope I emphasize this Adequately all right Since there are no questions, which I'm not used to we'll start off with our first case which is British politics in comparative and historical perspective so What do we know about? Britain But before that before starting off with this what have we covered so far? I know we I just covered this but let me show you once again which the quiz Will cover a quick introduction to comparative politics then we covered the modern state then approaches to democracy and some ideas about democratization then we covered Models of democracy in that part then this morning will do An introduction to Britain. I hope to be able to cover the introduction as well as Some history very brief history I don't want to bore you with with historical details The reason why I'm covering history here is to be able to draw some lessons from British history for contemporary British politics in society and culture and economy Okay, so so my utmost aim aim here is to Cover history so that we are on the same page With respect to what we understand or what we need to cover on British politics today in comparative historical perspective Then Depending on our time, I'd like to start with A political economy of economic and social policies, but but that depends on on our pace Okay, what does Britain look like on the map? We all know it is An island off the coast of Europe right Some geographers see Europe as a A an Asian Peninsula a Peninsula of Asia other geographers see Europe as a Continent of its own or in its own okay, so so this is more like an offshoot on the coast of Europe either as a peninsula or as a as a separate continent when we talk about Britain We talk about United Kingdom of Great Britain and when we talk about United Kingdom of Great Britain or Great Britain Actually, not United Kingdom of Great Britain when we talk about Great Britain we refer to England Wales and Scotland when we talk about the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland We refer to Great Britain plus Northern Ireland here. Offshore Island on the coast of Europe. That means the islands have been subject to less invasion and conquest. Less invasion and conquest means, what could it mean for British politics? Much less invasion, much less conquest from the mainland. More stability, very good. Self-sufficiency to a certain extent, or trying to be self-sufficient, very good. What else? Isolation may bring, in terms of who you are, less interruption into less intervention, interruption of political system, less intervention of others into your system, in terms of then being nosy into your system or about your system, which means that less interruption, less intervention by others, less conquering or conquest, or threat of conquest, means that you can develop in isolation somewhat, or more independently compared to others, your neighboring countries. But what about more sociological phenomena? Social, I am a British. What does it mean to be British? Would it have anything to do with this kind of isolation? Would that have anything to do with Britishness, being a Britain? How about identity? Would isolationism have anything to do with identity? What do you think? Any ideas? Because it's isolated, they don't know others. One hypothesis is that they could develop some kind of a xenophobia. You know, being afraid from others, xenophobia, foreign phobia. Please? So even when you're a cultural mosaic, if you have close neighbors who have an eye on your land, things get may messy. But because this, as a unit, these islands have been somewhat protected from outsiders, you can be more stable in that respect, but more peaceful in that, in the other respects. That's interesting, okay? What about other than xenophobia? Can you please? That's very interesting. You feel that you're doing it the right way, the most right way. And in fact, you want to teach others, hey, you do my way, or you go my way. That's so interesting. So, conceptions of identity, self-identity, who I am, who we are, who are we. Yes, it has an element of security, stability, but also a separate identity, which really complicates relationships with the main continent. Have you guys heard of something that happened in Britain, about Britain, of Britain, or sometimes thought about as against Britain, that happened in the summer of 2016. Brexit, the referendum on Brexit. So what's going to happen? How we're all watching? Theresa May, the prime minister, she declared, she announced last, I think it was Saturday or Friday, that this is going to take place according to some set timetable. So is all these questions of security, identity, stability, isolatedness that have something to do with contemporary decisions on, for example, Brexit? So the British identity has always been complicated, or has brought many complications with respect to the relationship of Britain with the Union, with the European Union. So that's also important to remember. It is separate from Europe, but also is part of Europe. Quite a tension, if you think about it. Quite some tension, you know, not only at the political level, but also at the social, personal, perhaps, sociopsychological level. A lot of tension, and hence Brexit. Let's start off with some history. As I said, my point here will not be covering British history for the sake of covering British history. You do that in other courses. My point here is to share with you ideas or lessons from history. What do we draw from all of this to understand better contemporary British politics? British history in comparative historical perspective, British politics, we know, did not evolve through revolutions. Did you hear about a revolution in British history? There is a revolution, but does it ring a bell or does it jibe with your understandings of the French revolution? Do they look similar? Okay, very good. So we're on the same page with some of you. So as opposed to revolutions, British history evolves through more peaceful, gradual, consistent, stable evolution. So revolutions are critical junctures, punctuated equilibria. So there is an equilibrium, then revolution, like ancien régime in France, revolution, new régime. Whereas in British history, it's quite different. If you think about French history, it's like ruptures or something happens and it goes like this. Whereas British history goes like this, more in incremental ways and more in more in terms of stable ways. So that's that's important to remember. So there is a gradual evolution, which culminates in a model of a united and stable country. So at the end of this process, we see the emergence of a united kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, united and stable, politically, socially, well economically to stable country. Okay. And part of this is explained through the resolution of a major cleavage, a conflict back in the late 17th century. The question of the question of religion, which has, of course, implications for politics, implications for identity and all that. So the question of religion had already been resolved back in 1680s. Just imagine more than 300 years ago, almost 350 years ago, question of religion has much less to do with with politics. And in time, we see the unification of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland through the unification, through coming together of kingdoms, not only by conquest, but also at the end of those processes by treaties, by agreements. Okay. People agree to be part of one another. The crown says, okay, we are now united. 1066, that is 1066, Battle of Hastings, Duke William of Normandy, defeat the English, the Norman monarchs reign, 1530s, 1540s, acts of union, which results in the unification of England and Wales. Then 1700s, early 1700s, 1707, another act of union. So Britain, like England and Wales, plus Scotland, become one country, one state. Okay. So the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. So that's quite peaceful. Yes, of course, there were wars, but these wars had been much less disruptive than elsewhere. Some conquest and many treaties. And in time, when you look at the process of political democracy or the emergence of political democracy, you go back to what you guys have learned or have been learning since your years of high school. Do we cover this in elementary school now? Magna Carta, 1215. Elementary school, no. But I remember learning about this in elementary school, but this is covered in high school, but that's the past millennium. I remember when I was in elementary school. So Magna Carta, 1215, which is a document that says through the lords forcing the king to give concessions to the lords. So this document protects the lords from the uses and the abuses or the potential abuses of royal power or by the royal power. Then in about 20 years, just imagine, 1230s, we see the emergence of something called the parliament. It derives from the Latin world, word, parliament, any ideas? The term derives from the Latin word, Latin verb, parler, which means where you speak, where you voice interests, where you articulate needs. Feudal lords gather with the crown or under the crown. Then 1400s by about the 15th century, that is, the parliament starts to make laws as part and parcel of English or British government. So 15th century, more than 500 years ago, the parliament gains some rights to pass legislation. Legislation, especially about, remember, legislation, especially about taxation and also remember absolute estates are characterized by strong bureaucracies for making war and also collecting taxes. Remember, the emergence of the modern state, ladies and gentlemen, two major functions, war making, tax collecting, okay, revenues, capitalism, economic development, war make states make war. We remember that. So from the 15th century onwards, the parliament gains the power to pass legislation on taxes and also declaring war. So 17th century, another big milestone in British history. Some historians really do not agree with this, but in general, compared to other revolutions, socioeconomic, socio-political or social revolutions, the glorious revolution is one which is much less bloodless. Political revolution after religious conflict, which has been raining since the 16th and 17th, all throughout 17th centuries for about 200 years, religion dictates conflicts. There are national rivalries. There are struggles between the crown and the lords. So a lot of warfare when you look at the history of 16th and 17th centuries, which results in civil wars of all sorts, which results in the abdication of James II in a coup and 1688 abdication of James II, which really marks history with the revolution. So 1688, end of 17th century, glorious revolution. It is a revolution, but why is it called glorious? Any ideas? Why could it be called glorious? The French Revolution, we don't think of glory, but the British Revolution, we generally attribute glory to it, because it really ends conflict, because as in the French case, as we shall be talking about in about two weeks, conflict continues. Here, conflict in a way ends. So civil war ends. The revolution sets framework for a new system, a new system organizing your political regime, a new kind of monarchy reminiscent of the absolutist states. But this monarchy comes with a co-qualification. It's constitutional monarchy. By constitutional monarchy, we don't see, we don't have one separate case, one separate text called the constitution, but we have all the acts, all Magna Carta, all legislation. So by constitutional monarchy, what political scientists and historians refer to, this qualifying adjective constitutional, simply means limited monarchy. So the powers of the monarch are limited by the parliament and also by the legal texts, which generally comes under the constitution. Although there is no one single piece of written text. And in time, monarchs become increasingly accountable to the lords and to the people. And by about the end of the 18th century, the parliament really has the sole authority, not with the crown, but has the sole authority to tax and to declare war. So after the glorious revolution, the emergence of parliament, emergence of the idea of parliamentary democracy defined back then or conceptualized back then. Democracy, not the kind of democracy we talk about now. Okay. The idea of participation ruled by people. They're more central, it's ruled by people. Okay. So but there's a parliament. Yes, there is the monarch. And it's a system of constitutional, ie, or read, limited monarchy. The glorious revolution resolves one major source of conflict, which inflicts all societies all throughout history or modern history and also contemporary history. Resolves religious conflict, results in the dominance of the Anglican church. So the church gets unified, settling of religious differences, which allows the emergence of a secular state back in the late 17th century. So more than 300 years ago, a secular state, which has implications for contemporary British politics. In contemporary British politics, we do not have a Christian Democrats political party. We hear Christian Democrats in which countries? In Germany? In northern Europe? Some equivalent of these guys also in Italy? To a certain extent in France. But no Christian Democratic party in Britain. So political party system does not feature a religious cleavage. So that's quite important to remember. So religious identity is not so important in contemporary British politics. And when you look at church attendance levels, quite low, in fact, lowest in or across Europe. So the party or the party system, the British party system, in that respect could be called secular. Because the main cleavage is not religion. It's mostly class and increasingly some other identities. But it's mostly class-based classic cleavages as opposed to any kind of religious cleavages. That's really important to remember when we discuss party politics. Then comes the Industrial Revolution. When does the Industrial Revolution emerge? Where does the Industrial Revolution emerge? When does the Industrial Revolution start? Any ideas? Okay. But what time? Giving you a hint. So it comes in stages. There is proto-industrialization, early forms of industrialization. But generally, we tend to go back to 1740s with the textile industries. By textiles, what's the material? Is it nylon? Somebody says cotton. Anyone from the southern part of Turkey here, from Chukurova, from Adana, Mersin, or Urfa? Anyone here from the south and southeastern parts of Anatolia. What kind of climate does cotton need for cotton to grow and to crack open, which is happening around this time, perhaps last month, for it to crack open? What kind of a climate do you need? Intense heat? Humidity, yes, but intense heat. Some kind of a Mediterranean climate. Summers are very hot, very warm, and not desert-like but quite dry, no rainfall. Winters are mild and humid. Does Britain strike you as the ideal place to grow cotton? Huh? Probably not, right? Virtually impossible. So, forget about cotton back in the early 70s, 1700s. Forget about that. What can you weave? Silk, not much available in Britain. It's available in the rich lands of the Far East, China, parts of India. Here, the only alternative is wool. If you go to Highlands, up north, British scarves, like Scottish scarves, huh? Good quality wool. Going back to the 1700s. So, a lot of wool and textiles, British cloths, wools, okay? Scottish wool. So, it starts with 1740s with wool. Then, we'll continue with cotton. I'll come back to that. But later on, 1770s, this is basically lighter industries or light industries. And from 1770s onwards, we see the emergence of heavy industries. By heavy industries, what do I refer to here? Machines, but what are machines, what are machines made of? Iron and steel, okay? Which consumes coal. All kinds of power. Steam engine, okay? But heavy industries. And with heavy industries, with the onset of heavy industries, you need to transport beyond the navigable rivers and channels and canals and here and there and everywhere on the island. You need something else. You need a more forceful vehicle. Ships are, yes, that's also important. Railroads become possible, okay? So, heavy industries, iron and steel and railroads, right? So, Industrial Revolution, 18th century, okay? So, when you look at the 18th century, Britain, you see especially looms in Manchester, north of London and elsewhere. You see textiles and then with all kinds of backward and forward linkages to heavy industries. So, expansion of manufacturing, technological innovation starting from steam engine to everything and anything, the machines and machine parts and all that. The emergence of wage labor. Wage labor. This is new. Before wage labor, what was the mode of production? Or how were, I mean, remember we talked about another mode of production. Peasants, in which peasants, serfs were part of. Okay? So, remember feudalism? The feudal mode of production was a bundle of rights, a system which comprised of all kinds of rights and duties. There was the landlord who was also fighting, protecting you and in return you were producing bushels of wheat, huh? Or a lot of grapes. Whatever you were producing you were paying in dues and you as peasants or slaves or serfs you were confined to your subsistence plots to make a living. You were basically living on what you were producing or you were engaged in barter. And you were paying dues to your landlord. But for the first time from the 1740s, well mid 18th century, we see the emergence and expansion of wage labor. So, workers come to the urban areas where plants and factories are. Anyone who's read anything by Charles Dickens? Oliver Twist. Who is Oliver Twist? Who is Oliver Twist? Where does he live? Okay, where does, huh? Where does Oliver Twist live? In an orphanage. Where are his parents? They are probably living in a workhouse or a poor house. They're working in return for wages. They're making a living in return for wages or through wages and by selling their labor power. Okay? So, emergence of wage labor or expansion of wage labor relationships. Commercialization of agriculture. Instead of you producing for your own in your subsistence plot, you produce and try or start selling them in the market. You produce for your own. You barter with your neighbor. She produces milk. I produce grapes. She produces wheat. So, we barter. You know, simple form of exchange. But from then onwards, from the 18th century onwards, we produce, we start producing for the market. We stop bartering. We stop exchanging amongst ourselves. We stop producing for our own only. We continue to produce for our own to a certain extent. But we also start selling our product in the market. Okay? So, commercialization of agriculture, mechanization of manufacturing with all kinds of technological innovations, which bring with, I mean, all of these bring with them all kinds of dislocations, all kinds of transformations, all kinds of ruptures. We talk about the great, the glorious revolution 17th century, but this is another revolution in terms of its social, political, economic, cultural consequences. Okay? So, the industrial revolution just 100 years later, not even 100 years later, 50, 60 years later than the glorious revolution. Massive changes, massive transformations. And these have two consequences that are related to imperialism and the process of democratization. Let's talk about a little bit more about imperialism and British hegemony. England becomes the superpower, world power by about the 18th century. You start your light, light industries through textiles, but the looms around Manchester, Liverpool and elsewhere, they're sometimes idle. You want to work them day and night in shifts. So you need something else. Wool is not enough. You need cotton. And because Britain cannot and simply does not produce cotton, you seek raw materials elsewhere. Where do you go? You go, you go to the far east. South Asia. So you need, I mean, the British industrialization process required an expansion, geographical expansion, which was for not only bringing raw materials such as cotton, but also being able to sell your manufactured items to these areas. So you needed to engage in international trade. And this was about the time when there was a Scottish gentleman in Glasgow University. He's a professor of political economy. Adam Smith, who says, yeah, a qualified form of less affair. So let's engage in trade. We will all win because we will all have some absolute advantage in the production of a line. And if we exchange, then we will all win. It's a positive sum game for us all. So ideology is there. So international trade, export orientation. You needed to export. You needed markets. You needed raw materials. So you needed to expand geographically. And this drive to secure markets and expand the empire required for you to engage in military as well as commercial activity. So the world map looked like something like this. When you look at North America, Canada, certain colonies, parts of Africa, South Africa, parts of West Africa, parts of East Africa, including Egypt, all of India, and parts of India, China, Australia, West as Western offshoots, like Canada, parts of the Arab world, and parts of Oceania. So came under British hegemony. So we're talking about late 18th century, 19th century. By the end of the 19th century, this means a quarter of the world's population, a quarter of the entire world's population. One quarter. Today world's population is about 7 billion, a little bit more than 7 billion. A quarter of it, almost 2 billion. Just imagine. Come under British hegemony, British rule. About 50 countries come either under direct rule, direct colonial rule, or part of an extensive informal empire. This is 1870s. So Britain becomes the hegemon, which controls all kinds of alliances, which controls trade, which controls all kinds of not only economic commercial activities, but also political activities, political alliances. It's a new type of power called hegemonic power. It's a global power supported by industrial growth at home, and it relies on industrial production at home to expand geographically. So that's what the British Empire looked like by about the end of 19th century. So there were two consequences, or two phenomena related to the industrial revolution. One is imperialism, and the other is democracy or democratization, the process of democratization and pressures for democratization. So industrial revolution, dislocations, disruptions, massive transformations, shifting of economic power away from landed aristocracy, you know, classic power holders, to the emerging bourgeoisie, you know, basically commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which brings with it a pressure to expand franchise. By franchise, I mean right to vote, from the aristocracy, landed aristocracy expansion to other sectors in society. Again, here we also see a gradual process of democratization. So from about the early parts of early decades of 19th century to almost early parts of early decades of the 20th century, in about 1890 years, Reform Act of 1832, to representation of the People Act of 1918, suffrage expands to all adults by the end of World War I, expanding suffrage to all adults over the age of 30. And by the end of World War I, we see Britain as an emerging, full-fledged democracy. British states characterized by the political system of democracy conceptualized back then. So once again, the industrial revolution has two consequences that we want to focus on. One is British hegemony, imperialism, and the other is enfranchisement, right to vote, expansion of the right to vote, which means expansion of democracy. Really talked a lot. Any questions so far? Okay, let's take a break and then we'll convene in about 10.