 Today, when I am supposed to talk to you about how psychology emerged as a discipline. It reminds me of an experience that I had several years back. During my undergraduate days, when I was going through the history of psychology, because it was prescribed in the course template at my university, I found the history of psychology to be very dull and right. And the primary reason, I guess now is that things were told to me in a very way, what you call linear fashion, where the different schools, the major personalities and their contributions, it was taught to me. And this is how, you know, even several of the textbooks of history of psychology also talks about. Somehow, I found it extremely dull, very, very dry, not at all fascinating. 20 years down the line, today, when I read the history of psychology and when I am in a position to a larger extent to relate things, the constructs, the personalities, the time frame, the happenings that was taking place in and around the other areas. Now, I find the history of psychology to be very fascinating and I also find it relevant, something that I did not find 20 years back. Two important things that I understood was the first, that at any given time in the society, there are certain practical needs. And development that takes place in any discipline, basically is an attempt to cater to those practical needs of the society. And so, has happened even in the case of psychology, where attempt was made, because there were social compulsions, because there was a need for certain things at that given point in time and therefore, things developed the way they developed. And second, that the strength and the limitations can be very well understood only when you view things in their historical context. The moment you know, delink it from the context, the strength and the limitation of something that has historically taken place, it is very difficult to visualize it. And therefore, now, I find that the history of psychology, when I am trying to know in a very comprehensive way, share it with you, I find it extremely relevant, I find it very fascinating. Traditionally, what has happened is that usually the books, the university curriculum, they will talk about the major schools. And then, you will have the different stalwarts, who gave certain theories, who gave certain prepositions, they are taught. This could be one way of approaching how psychology immersed at its discipline. The second approach could be, where you take the major influences, the way I have put it here, where you have the philosophical influences, the influence that was exerted by development in the area of physiological sciences. And then, how different schools of thought gradually started evolving. And then finally, how contemporary development has taken place in the area of psychology. Now, when I do all this, I will know deviate a bit after couple of minutes. What I will primarily do is that, I will look at the two strong influences, the philosophical influences and the physiological influences. And then, I would go to the major schools and even within the major schools, I would only talk about the major theories or the major ideas that was developed at that point in time. And especially, my emphasis would be that how finally, even though we had initially begun with the philosophical influence, how psychology gradually started emerging as a discipline, which was more into the scientific study of a behavior, more into a very systematic study of a behavior and how this discipline actually became much more scientific in nature. So, first we begin with the philosophical influences and as you know, I am just summarizing these major influences. René Descartes was the first person who you can give the credit of influencing psychology. And primarily, he was talking about the mechanism and the mind-body problem. Mechanistic conception of the body was another important construct that he influenced. The theory of reflux action was something that you can root it to René Descartes. Mind-body interaction was another very, very strong and important construct that actually came because of the influence of René Descartes. And two important things, one, the localization of mental functions in the brain and the doctrine of innate ideas. You would find that these six important developments in the area of psychology can be traced back to René Descartes. John Locke and George Berkeley. These three important philosophers also influenced psychology to a greater extent. And Comte can be given the credit for influencing the concepts like positivism, materialism and empiricism. And John Locke talked about the how mind acquires knowledge. And George Berkeley gets the credit of talking about mentalism. Then we have the influences of David Hartley, James Mill and John Stuart Mill, where David Hartley was actually talking about repetition. It was John Mill who talked about mind as a machine. And John Stuart Mill actually talked about the mental chemistry. So many of these things you find later on being discussed in the domain of psychology, which actually has its root in the early philosophical influences. Another important influence that psychology had was from those who were working in the area of physiology. And important constructs like reflex behavior was proposed by Marshall Hall. Paul also talked about something called extirpation, which actually was a process where you remove or you destroy part of the brain of an animal. And then you try to observe the behavioral changes that the animal has undergone. So this was another technique, which actually was part of physiology. But later on you find that psychology also was heavily influenced by this technique. Paul Broca, everybody in psychology knows him. And he actually is given the credit of evolving this clinical method, where posthumously examination of the brain structure was done. And he would primarily try to correlate the changes that has taken place in the brain. And accordingly he would correlate it with the behavior that the individual was showing. So basically post survival stage, post death of an individual, you just examine the brain and you correlate the brain with the behavior. This was little different from the method that was given by Marshall Hall, where he was trying to destroy or remove part of the animal's brain. And then trying to see the changes that the animal has undergone. By 1870 an interesting method came forward till now the methods were either extirpation or the clinical method. But then Fritz and Hitzig, they came forward with the method of electrical stimulation where weak electric currents were introduced to the cerebral cortex. And then the motor behavior of the subject, the individual was observed. And you would find that electrical stimulation as a technique has been used for very, very long in the history of psychology. Another important person was Hermann Helmholtz, who not only influenced psychology, but primarily his contribution was in the area of physics, in the area of physiology. And by default he also influenced development of psychology. Weber, who actually gets the credit of two things, the concept of two-point threshold and the concept of just notable difference, till date those who study the psychology of perception. In the perceptual process, people do refer to two-point threshold and just noticeable difference and undergraduate students must be doing practicals on these constructs. Another important person, who influenced psychology was Fekner. Fekner did talk about the mind and the body, but most importantly, Fekner should be given the credit of developing a technique whereby the mind-body relationship can be quantified. Remember, earlier also, right from philosophical days itself, the relationship between mind and the body was always being studied. It was always a primary area of interest for behavioral scientists, but Fekner should be given the credit, because he did talk about the mind and the body relationship, but then his idea was primarily to quantify this relationship. And till date, psychology is under the influence of quantification of human behavior. The concept of absolute and difference threshold was also talked about by Fekner. And the three methods of psychophysics that we read nowadays, the method of average error, the method of constant stimuli and the method of limits. Fekner is given the credit of developing one of the method and actually he systematized the remaining two methods. And all these three methods are now established method that are part of psychophysics. Gradually, psychology know after the influence of these philosophers and the people who were working in the area of physiology, psychology started gradually taking its shape. And we all have heard about William Wundt, who primarily talked about the study of conscious experience and to him, conscious experience was both the mediate and the immediate experience. Method of introspection was given major credit and the whole of psychology started revolving around this very method that William Wundt talked about. He did talk about the elements of conscious experiences and primarily the whole concept of upper perception, which is actually how you organize the elements in your mind. That was something that Wundt talked about. Herman Ewing Haas, we all know him. He gets the credit of influencing the construct of learning, where especially he talked about the nonsense syllables. Till date, you find the reference of nonsense syllables whenever you talk about learning, whenever you talk about memory. All experiments know a cross board would have invariably have the usage of nonsense syllables. Brands, Brentano was another important person who did talk about the study of the mental acts and stump came forward with phenomenology, which was actually introspective method, which was examining the experience as it occurred rather than reducing it to elementary components. And stumps way of looking at introspection as a method started making a deviation from what Wundt had initially suggested. And then it was Kulpe, who talked about the systematic experimental introspection. And where introspective method was used to seek information about an individual after the experimental task was complete. And then of course, Kulpe also gets the credit of talking about imageless thought. Now I am taking the route that is usually followed in most of the books of history of psychology and most of the universities course structure follows this template where you talk about different schools. But I must tell you that my idea is to just summarize the major individuals and their contributions, the major constructs that was talked about under the ambit of that very school of thought in psychology. But then once again I will make a deviation once I complete the neopradiance thereafter. And then I will now gradually go into much more detail of how psychology started taking its shape and becoming more and more systematic and scientific study of behavior. So, coming to structuralism, Tichner gave the concept of the content of a conscious experience and he did contribute a lot to it. And then comes functionalism where the primary emphasis was more on the functional outcome and once again you can trace it back to Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin actually did not make a direct impact on psychology at his time. But he had a very diverse interest and if you can relate the presented development to the contribution of Charles Darwin, you will find interesting relationships. For example, comparative psychology is one of the branches of psychology and when you start tracing the roots of this domain of knowledge, you can trace it back to Charles Darwin who had actually focused on animal psychology. So, primarily the focus of attention on animal psychology could be construed as the basis for comparative psychology. Another interesting thing was that even though consciousness was the focus of attention till that time, Charles Darwin suggested that the focus deserves to be on the functions rather than on the structure of consciousness. And two most interesting things, one that Charles Darwin should be given the credit of accepting methods used in other areas as well as using data which is of interest of different domains of knowledge. So, today what we refer to as interdisciplinary, what we refer to as multidisciplinary. It was Charles Darwin who should be given the credit, who actually advocated for accepting the method and the data from multiple sources. And most importantly, the construct of individual difference, the importance of measurement of individual difference was something that can once again be traced back to Charles Darwin. So, that way you can have these four important contributions of Charles Darwin which is actually a part of functionalism if you want to trace it back. Sir Francis Galton, another interesting individual who actually talked about mental inheritance and he is known for his research on mental inheritance and talking all about it. But the most important thing that he actually contributed to was quantification. What Francis Galton was repeatedly talking about was that there is a possibility of quantifying whatever you observe in human behavior. Then of course, William James who talked about the stream of consciousness, for him consciousness was a continuous flowing process and any attempt to reduce it to elements would actually destroy it. Besides William James, you have long list of people in psychology who influenced psychology in one way or the other. For example, you can take Hall, Dewey, Angel, Carr and of course, Woodworth. But the most important thing was the legacy of functionalism which actually was more and more into making psychology very, very application oriented discipline. One, the contribution of Cattail who was actually into psychological testing and little later our entire focus would be on the testing movement, how actually from one piece of work it actually went to the whole area of interest. Second, the two important movements that took place, one, the clinical psychology movement and two, the industrial organizational psychology movement. There you find the reference of Leitner-Wittmer and Walter Scott in the two different movements. These were the major contributions which made psychology more and more application oriented discipline. Besides that, the whole set of Gestalt psychologists, what they are called as Wardheimer, Koffler, they contributed a lot to understanding the whole principles of perceptual organization. But very interestingly, when you read the construct of development of insights, especially the study of apes, there you find that even the whole construct of acquisition of information, learning of information and how insight plays an important role in this, the credit can again be given to the Gestalt psychologist. Of course, we know the importance of field theory, Kurt Levin gets the credit for it and the study of motivation and all psychologists would know the zygarnic effect. Then, we come to behaviorism, where the major theories came, Thondike who came forward with a new instrument called the puzzle box, where he did his experiment and this is how the method of trial and error came into picture and two important laws came into existence, the law of effect and the law of exercise. Ivan Pavlov, we all know him, who gave the whole concept of classical conditioning, although Ivan Pavlov was working on some other problem, but the outcome that he got influence psychology to the, what you call the strongest possible extent and we have the whole construct of classical conditioning. Watson and influenced psychology like anything, Tolman who should also be given the credit of introducing the concept of intervening variable in psychology, till that time psychology was mostly looked at from the independent and the dependent clusters of variables. It was Tolman who did introduce the concept of intervening variable and then Clark who did talk about the hypothetical deductive method, but once again B. F. Skinner who did come forward with a major construct of operant conditioning and besides explaining the whole construct of operant conditioning, Skinner also gets the credit of introducing the schedule of reinforcement, which once again is mega construct in psychology and the concept of successive approximation, which actually explains how complex behavior are acquired by human beings. So, these were the major constructs that was actually talked about during the era of behaviorism, but once again socio behaviorism came into picture and especially you have two important individuals who contributed in this area, Albert Bandura who gets the credit for introducing the concept of bicarious reinforcement and also talking about self efficacy and Julian Rotter who did talk about locus of control. All psychologists would certainly be reading the constructs given by them and many of these concepts are still part of not only the understanding of this subject, but also you find them being used in their practical classes. And comes psychoanalysis where Sigmund Freud suddenly you know took a different turn where he talked about the theories of the unconscious mind. He did focus on the sexual basis of neurosis, evolved dream analysis as a technique and most importantly he did talk about psychoanalysis both as a therapeutic technique and he also talked about psychoanalysis as a system of personality. And later on came Anna Freud, Klein, Carl Jung, Alfred Edler and Karen Hornay all of them who are usually called as neo-Fridians who did not know challenge the major construct of psychoanalysis, but did try to explain human behavior in a way which was deviating from the usual way Sigmund Freud had explained. So, these were the major contributions, but then by the time personality was being explained by psychoanalysis there was another parallel development that took place where different personality theories started evolving and there emerged the whole humanistic psychology and especially two individuals Abraham Maslow who gave the concept of self actualization and Carl Roger who took to who did talk about positive regard the unconditional love of the mother for an infant he talked about it and these two were important constructs gradually no psychology started taking a different turn and then came an important turn around in the history of psychology what I am referring to here as contemporary development when George Miller started his work George Miller by training was not a psychologist no he was into language and later on he did contribute in a very big way talking about psycho linguistics and then it was nice who did know compare the functions of human beings with respect to the metaphors used in computer and this was a major turn around where there was a shift from the SOR pattern of understanding and explaining human behavior where one would talk about the stimulus organism response to when one started talking about input transformation and output and this is how cognitive psychology came into existence. More and more influence of the physiological processes which made it evolve as cognitive neuroscience in fact no later on in this series there is a section on neuropsychology where you would have 2, 3 speakers talking on different different topics and then there was also this influence of biology where it was not only you know studied as psycho biology but it was also investigated from a sociobiology point of view and more importantly the evolutionary psychology emerged out as an interesting area where behavior was traced back to the usual evolutionary biology way of explanation. So, the traditional methods used in psychology the scientific method the scientific rigor of making prediction about a human behavior but then also taking an evolutionary viewpoint. Having you know summarized the history of psychology in nutshell I am now making an attempt to revisit the scientific psychology and as I told you that I would now be making very, very surgical intervention into the history of psychology where I would try to trace how psychology actually became more and more scientific know as a domain of study. Now, for this I am selectively choosing the whole you know history of psychological testing and you can consider that William Wohne Francis Galton and James Cattail can be considered as the founders of the modern psychological testing. But I must tell you that if you start looking at the history of once again you know the testing and assessment you would realize that testing can be traced back you know to a very, very old practice in China. So, now onwards what I will do is that I will first begin with you know neighbor or neighbor China what actually was being practiced there and then we will know move to different European countries where different, different developments took place coming to US where psychology was taken forward to its modern format. We will then you know swing between Europe and US and then once again we will return back to India and see how you know developments took place within this country and what impact it had you know on the overall development of psychology as a discipline. Now, psychological testing is little more than 100 year old but then even though it had a very timid beginning it has now become a big business. You have different, different testing houses where you pay a large amount of money there are you know series of you know assessment that are being performed by different, different consultancy agencies government agencies. So, this has taken shape of a big business very interestingly certain cultural institutions have evolved around psychological testing and assessment and I refer to Madina and Neil who estimates that the usage of achievement and ability test in US is approximately 200 million per year and this gives you know an idea to visualize the quantum of the size of this whole development that has taken place. Going back to history Sir Francis Galton know you can give him the credit of developing the first battery what was the assortment of sensory and motor measures and later on it was Cattail who should be given the credit of talking about mental tests and measurements. Having said that now let us go back to China and there you realize that testing can be dated back to 2200 B.C. And I refer to Lai here who says that every third year the officials in China had a compulsion to undergo test of fitness. The hand dynasty in China introduced written test in five areas civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue and geography. These were the five areas and interestingly you will find that by 1370 a three tier examination pattern had evolved. The preliminary examination where all the first 1 to 7 percent of those who used to pass the preliminary exams they took up the district exams and 1 to 10 percent of those who qualified it they had to go to picking to take up the final exam. So right from 2200 B.C. you find that the society felt the need for testing and assessment of human capability and even though it was not hardcore you know psychological in nature. But you do find that there was no felt need that I was referring to right in the beginning that after 20 years when I realized that actually there are certain contemporary need of the society. There are certain you know practical needs of the society that demands that certain things should definitely evolve. And therefore, you know you find that you know psychological testing was being practiced in China in a different form of course. What is interesting to observe also is that although testing can be traced back to China 2200 B.C. but the validation of this whole process was actually not into a picture you know it also it always remained an issue at that time. And this whole testing system was evolved by 1906. Another important development that took place was not in the area of psychology but in our sister discipline psychiatric. In Germany Grassey was a physician who actually thought of you know measuring what you call the loss of certain capability in the brain injured patients. So, he developed an instrument for testing the brain injured patients. The whole idea was to show words symbols and pictures through a slot in a sheet of paper that moved slowly over the stimuli. So, one sheet of paper which will have either words it will have symbols it will have pictures. And then you have another sheet put over it which will have a slot there an open slot. And you move the paper with a slot over the picture now which has this words symbols and pictures. This is actually what you see in memory drum. So, this actually you know the process adopted by Grassey can be considered as a precursor of the memory drum. And you see here right now on your screen you have the memory drum. Of course, now it is being phased out because of the contemporary development of computers. Because you can replace presentation of the stimuli but traditionally I do not know in the modern times how many people have seen memory drum. But I remember my own undergraduate days where memory drum was used as an instrument in the psychology lab where you can see here rotor put there. This rotor actually could be used to adjust the speed of the movement of the drum. And this sky blue plate that you see on the top and a white opening there. You can open the slits there where you have the blinking arrow beneath which a drum was there which where we used to know put a sheet of paper used to paste it with the stimuli. The stimuli could be again anything largely it used to be words, it could be nonsense syllables, it could be symbols, it could be pictures. All you ensure is that without error you are in a position to present the stimuli to your human subject after a certain temporal limit. So, you would have designed your experiment and you ensure that after every lapse of these many seconds the stimulus would change and memory used to serve this purpose. Now of course, with development of computer memory drum as an instrument has lost probably its significance. But then it did play a very significant role. All I am trying to say is that it is not only the concept that developed it is also the need of the society. It is also the development of certain tools the development of certain techniques that should be taken into account when we talk of how psychology immersed as a discipline. Another German psychiatrist Konrad Rieger he developed a test battery for the brain damaged patients. Now you see an interesting thing the first test battery that we were referring to was traced back to Francis Galton. And after Francis Galton you realize that it is basically Grassey who thought of the brain damaged patients and came forward not with a test battery, but with an instrument. And again it was Konrad Rieger who again thought of assessment of the brain damaged patient, but this time it was not an instrument it was a test battery. The limitation with this test battery was that for its administration you needed more than 100 hours something that is impractical in terms of usage. And although it did not receive much acceptance these two developments the development of memory drum as a tool and the development of the test battery did contribute to the standardization process. So, today when we talk about as a standardized test in psychology you can again refer it back to these two significant development in the history of psychology. Now assessment of brain damaged patients and psychiatric symptoms became possible because of these two things. Another interesting thing we are still in Germany right now when we are looking at developments taking place in Germany. Experimental psychology thrived you know in Europe and also in England and William Wundt he was actually trying to measure mental process through the help of a thought meter. On your screen what you see swinging pendulum hitting two bells on two sides was actually you know what William Wundt called as thought meter and remember note that this was 1862 when he was trying to do this. Thought meter was actually a calibrated pendulum with needles on both the sides and while swinging it always know the needle used to strike the bells. Now the observer had a task to note the position of the pendulum when he heard the sound of the bell. Now Wundt had adjusted the needles beforehand and therefore knew the position of the pendulum. What actually was being recorded was the difference between the actual and the observed position determined you know through this experiment and actually this whole process actually determined the swiftness of thought of the observer. I quote William Wundt that for each person there must be certain speed of thinking which he can never exceed with his given mental constitution. Now if you know look at thought meter if you look at those whole process it might look as if it was a very very preliminary type of an investigation of how is human beings perform. But remember that this very experiment served the understanding of several processes which was actually a cause of concern for scientist in those days. In the area of astronomy there was a big debate going on because people in the observatory would keep you know tracking the movement of stars and then you know two different people would report change by certain time. And therefore when William Wundt you know experimented using his thought meter with whatever way it influence psychology it did serve the purpose of answering a question in astronomy. Now another interesting thing was that this experimental approach also contributed to understanding of certain very vital psychological processes such as attention, motivation, self correction and of prime importance once again individual difference. Now all four of them are extremely important constructs in psychology till date and you can refer it back to an experiment done by William Wundt in 1862. So this is an interesting development that took place. Let us know now go back from Germany to England where Sir Francis Galton actually attempted to measure intellect by measuring reaction time and sensory discrimination. So these two were his important constructs and his work actually helped to understand individual differences in a much better way. I am not going into the details of what actually he proposed. But what I am trying to tell here is that the fact that the difference between two individuals can be measured can be quantified is something that you know you should give credit to Sir Francis Galton. Interestingly he established a psychometric lab in London at the international health exhibition and again it was 1884 when he did so. Now as you can see on your screen know there was a long corridor with tables put there and he had put different instruments there and those instruments were primarily supposed to measure physical characteristics as well as behavioral tests were also put. Now physical characteristics such as height, weight, head length, head width, arm span, length of the lower arm and so forth was the physical characteristics. The behavioral tests such as strength of hand squeeze, lungs capacity, visual acuity, reaction time, speed of blow and the highest audible tone that can be received by the individual these were the behavioral tests that he had exhibited at that time. Interestingly 17000 people were tested you know during this exhibition and you will be surprised to know that 7500 records of those 75000 individuals are still available. And of course I refer to the work of Johnson and his colleagues for this. But most importantly once again as you can see that blinking statement on your screen that dynamometer was used to measure the strength of hand squeeze and even now to measure grip strength to measure the strength of the hand to measure the strength of the squeeze dynamometer is still used as a tool. So, something that was used long back at that time you find that makes sense to psychologist till date. This method of measuring intelligence of course perished, but it did clear that objective test can be devised. So, this was an interesting realization and that the scores that you draw out of your objective test can be used to draw inference. Remember that now when you talk of statistical interpretation of your data you do talk about inferential statistics psychology has moved to the extent where attempts are always being made with respect to the how much inference can be drawn from what you have observed. Now, let us now go to the US James Cattail developed a series of tests and he coined a term called mental test in his paper mental test and measurements. What he actually was talking about was the fact that the bodily and the mental energies they are inseparable you cannot separate them. One, two that physiological measure is also an index of the mental power of an individual. And the interest of James Cattail included strength of hand squeeze using once again dynamometer rate of hand movement 2 point threshold for touch. I am sure many undergraduate students must have done practicals on 2 point threshold. Degree of pressure that is needed to cause pain, weight difference, reaction time for sound, time for naming color, bisection of a 50 centimeter line, judgment of 10 second of time and number of letter repeated on one hearing. So, these were his interests. Interestingly, James Cattail had of course, good number of students. Four of his students know made significant contribution to the development of psychology as a discipline. Thondike, who is famous for his learning theories. Woodworth, who wrote this exemplary book on experimental psychology. E. K. Strong, who is given the credit of developing the vocational interest blank. And Whistler, who actually made a correlational study between the mental test scores and the academic performance. So, actually whether psychological test serve the purpose that it is meant for, it is something that he tested. Now, Whistler in 1901, he did find the absence of correlation between the mental test scores with the academic achievement. Now, experimentalist by that time gradually started discarding the concept of reaction time and sensory discrimination as measures of intelligence. And of course, Whistler also gradually turned his interest towards anthropology, but 70 years later you find that reaction time once again revived as a major construct. Today, 2013 with all these modern equipments that are being used in psychology laboratories, you still have reaction time as an important variable in your study. But, once again you can see that this measurement of reaction time can once again be traced back. We once again come back to Europe. In the middle ages in Europe, people with intellectual disabilities were occasionally diagnosed as witches and they were put to death by burning. Broomberg, he has you know referred to a book, Flajlam Salutes, where he says that prominent physician advocated beating as a treatment for certain types of psychological phenomena like melancholia, frenzy, paralysis, epilepsy and facial expression of feeble mindedness. So, you can understand to what great extent feeble mindedness was you know disregarded by the contemporary society in Europe. But, then two French physicians, Squaryall and Seguin, they revolutionized the thinking of people in the Europe about people who suffer from mental retardation. Now, Squaryall actually was the first to propose a three tier classification system for those who are suffering from mental retardation and this classification was based on language skill. First, those who use short phrases, two those who use only monosyllables and of course, those who can only cry, but they cannot speak. In the late 1800's, Seguin was the one who was instrumental in promoting humanistic view towards the individuals who suffered from mental retardation and he was the one who also developed educational program for the mentally retarded. In 1838, he established an experimental class for them. So, you find that there was a big change you know in terms of catering to the need of people with mental retardation. Now, Blin and Damay in France, they came forward with a battery of assessment for mentally retarded and this had 20 areas you know such as spoken language, knowledge for part of the body, obedience to simple commands, naming common objects or ability to read, write and do simple arithmetic. What you find is that there was you know a big debate taking place in contemporary Europe and then there was also a felt need by the society that the set of people who suffer from certain type of feeble mindedness or what was later on termed as mental retardation also deserves the attention of the psychologists. So, the social background of this time desperately needed a psychological tool for identification of such children. In 1904, an interesting development took place. The ministry of public instruction in Paris appointed a commission to formulate educational measures and Alfred Binet and his students Simon they were asked to help the Paris school system to identify children who are unlikely to benefit from the ordinary instruction that is being imparted there and this is how Binet came forward with his first test of intelligence in 1905. This is considered to be a major milestones in modern psychology.