 Today I am going to talk about the comparative method in the study of all the Chinese. Here is my outline. My talk is in four parts introduction. The traditional approach is the theological evidence. I am going to talk about some basic words lacking theological evidence. I am going to talk about the correspondence between all the Chinese and me. Middle Chinese is the theory of the three dynasties, the 6th century and the 10th century. All the Chinese are languages of Chinese classical texts and common answers of varieties of Chinese. It could be 11th century BC to preaching the dynasties to 221 BC or for my 10th dynasties to 206. As you know, Targaryen reconstructed Middle Chinese based on the category of the chain. He used a bunch of data from Chinese dialects and I saw in Japanese and Korean and Vietnamese. It is believed that modern Chinese dialects descended from Middle Chinese. Min dialects spoken in Fujian province are not listed in Middle Chinese. So Min could be descended from all the Chinese or could be sister language of all the Chinese. Here, I don't think it is appropriate to use the term Chinese because all the Chinese. As I mentioned, all the Chinese are languages of Chinese texts and common answers of varieties of Chinese. So it is difficult to define what is all the Chinese and what is both Chinese. Min is really useful for reconstructing all the Chinese. But Calvin did not make use of data from Min in his reconstruct of all the Chinese. Maybe at the time, the data from Min is not so documented. But at this time, the data from Min is really well documented. So we can use the data to reconstruct all the Chinese. So after Calvin, scholars such as Breibach, Benedict and Starrtsing and others, like Gonchi also working on the bi-languages and all the Chinese and the Nazis also working on this. And then they tried to apply composite methods in the study of all the Chinese. And these studies based on prot-min reconstructed by J. Norman. And in Norman, he proposes that some prot-min onset related to non-synetic languages such as Huma-Mian also called Miao-Yao-Kradai, Taikarae, and the bi-languages. And for example, like some words like dog or this kind of stuff. And then, so five years ago, Baxi and Sagao, they published a book about the study of all the Chinese formality. And they emphasized the importance of applying composite methods into all the Chinese. They used a bunch of prot-min. And they also used all the Chinese long words to Huma-Mian and bi-languages. But the problem is that we still do not know whether these long words came from Chinese languages to other languages or came from other languages into Chinese languages. I think some words came from Huma-Mian to all the Chinese. And some words came from Tibetan language to all the Chinese. But anyway, so these long words enable us to reconstruct really complex onset like KT and NK or M-Shua-K, this kind of stuff. But some scholars in China still have believed that comparative method is not always useful in the study of all the Chinese. In fact, there are some words we cannot rely on the comparative method at all. So for example, the word for west has been reconstructed as, because there is not evidence to reconstruct other onset. So let's take a look at the table. So the word for west, she in Beijing, she in Xi'an, and Xia and fly. And so a sign of Japanese gone, a say in sign of Japanese gone, and a sign in Korean. So the word for onset is must be reconstructed as. But Angri and Sagao, they postulated SN onset based on the theological evidence, which is Shi'an connections. So these two characters share the same phonetic element, this character. So they must be homophones. So they reconstruct voices M. And I used the X-ray documents, so archaeological stuff, so bamboo sleeves. And I reconstructed SN onset for the word west as well. And I think the data from Tibetan language could be useful. So some words lack the traditional evidence, theological evidence, and others lack the comparative evidence. So in any case, we need to make more and better use of theological evidence and X-ray documents and the comparative data, just like Gala did in the early stage. So the aim of this talk is applying comparative method to the study of all the Chinese. And we construct some basic words lacking theological evidence. Before we go into that basic words, I have to talk about some traditional apologies. So theological studies developed in the Qing Dynasty, so 17th century and 20th century. So rhyme is seen in Shijin, book of arts. But of course rhymes do not tell us anything about the onset, so I'm not going to talk about this today. And a textual variation. So there are a lot of documents, so classical documents, excavated documents in China. So these documents show us the amount of the textual variations. So for example Zhao, so Zhao Wenzi, an able person, is represented like this. So Zhao Wenzi, Zhao Wenzi, Zhao Wenzi. So we can assume that these three characters must be homophones or near homophones at the time. So we reconstruct like this. So DR for the word for Zhao and DE, Shao and ST for the word Shao. And so we can use these textual variations to reconstruct all the Chinese onset. And the phonetic long characters, it is called Jiajie in Chinese. So this is indispensable data to reconstruct all the Chinese. And these long characters are used to represent another homophones or near homophones. So like this character, Duan, meaning tip, represent this word meaning short. Because these two words are homophones or near homophones. So let's take a look at the sound change. So Duan meaning tip, T-O-N, and Duan meaning short, T-O-N. But so these two characters are near homophones except the tone categories. And then next is the phonetic series, so-called Jiaxian series in Chinese languages. So this is a set of characters sharing the same phonetic element. So let's take a look at this character. So composed of two parts, tu, meaning art, dan, meaning dawn. So this is a semantic element and dan is a phonetic element. So this phonetic element represents the sound of this character, tan. And 80% of Chinese characters are phonetic elements. So we can use this phonetic element in the Jiaxian series to reconstruct all the Chinese at the time. So these red-colored characters, they share the same phonetic element. So dan, dan, dan, and a bottom here is dan, right? So these characters have the same phonetic element, dan, meaning dawn. So they were homophones or near homophones at the time. And these characters are the traditional category or initial category in the traditional studies. So dan represents a voiceless unaspirated dental stop or something like that. So this is about the sound chain. So tan, t-h-a-n, d-a-n, t-l-a-n, so t-a-n, kind of like this. So traditional approach is highly reliable, and we are working on it right now. So not always rhyming the classical texts, right? And not always have the Jiaxian connections. Not always represent the sound being used at the time. So some basic words lack theological evidence. So it is not easy to define the basic words, right? For convenience, I'm just focusing on these five words, water, a few, head, hand, animal. So the word for water has rhyme evidence, so I check it in the box. But it doesn't have any other evidence, no other evidence, so I didn't check it in the box. And these five words had S-Y on set in middle Chinese, actually C. And these S-Y on set came at least from five old Chinese on set, or maybe six. But anyway, so the word for to write, writing, came from S-P and changed to S-Y. And slow, easy, came from Voices L, changed to S-Y. Indulgent came from Voices N, circumstances came from Voices N. So two paradigm came from Q-H. So they were artistic in C-Hian connections. So if S-Y has C-Hian connections with T-T-H, T-T-S-Y, T-S-H-Y, these on set in middle Chinese, we can reconstruct S-T for this word, kind of like that. So, yeah, so as I mentioned above, so if S-Y has C-Hian connections with N-N-R-N-Y, we can reconstruct Voices N. And these five words came from any of them, so S-T, Voices A, Voices N, Voices N, and Q-H. And so the word for water and a few, so no evidence for the word for water and a few in the classical text, so I didn't check in the box. So, you know, rhyme data does not tell us anything about the on set, so we cannot use this data to reconstruct all the Chinese on set. And so some scholars think the word for a few has been thought to have C-Hian connections with Miao, meaning very small or minute, and Xiao, meaning small. But under the C-Hian principle, middle Chinese S-Y does not have C-Hian connections with M and S. So there is no M and S, right? So I think the word for a few does not have C-Hian connections. And the word for head and head, so actually the word for head has C-Hian connections with Da, meaning way, so both two characters share the same phonetic element, right? Head. But we don't know whether the head came from S-T or voices L based on C-Hian connections because so S-Y, if S-Y has C-Hian connections with D, we can reconstruct S-T or voices L, right? So this data, so Dao, is not useful for reconstruct the word for head. So we still do not know whether it came from. And the word for hand, this is really a complicated problem, but in 1995 I pointed out that the characters Chou and Chou, both meaning hand characters, the textural variations, and the characters Chou, meaning hand, and Chou could be the phonetic element for the character Chou and Chou. So these two characters are textural variations, both meaning hand characters. And Chou and Chou are phonetic elements. So if they are phonetic elements, it could be homophones. So Chou and Chou have the nasal onset in phonetic series, so Nio. So they share the same phonetic element, right? So since both two characters have S-Hian connections with Nio, and Nio has nasal onset, so we can prostrate the voices nasal for these characters. And I'm going to join Sagao prostrate the voices nasal onset for the word hand for this reason. And what interests us is that both head and head are homophones in the Middle Chinese, like Chou, kind of like that. So if both hand and head have been homophones in all the Chinese, it would have been difficult to distinguish between two, right? But eventually the character Chou replaced with the character Chou, also meaning head. So in the early Middle Chinese, so before hand and head matched into one. So this is very interesting. So as I mentioned above, these five words don't have theological evidence, so we cannot reconstruct all the Chinese onset. So let's take a look at the correspondence between all the Chinese and Nio. So by eating the Chinese name of Baxi, he wrote the paper in Chinese, so I just write his Chinese name. And he noted that Middle Chinese S-Y correspond to voices and aspirated African T-S, and aspirated T-S-H in Amore Siamen. And the correspondence of T-S in Min to Middle Chinese S-Y reflects all the Chinese S-T. And the correspondence of T-S-H in Min to Middle Chinese S-Y reflects all the Chinese voices resonant, so voices N and voices L. So Akitani and I reexamined these hypotheses by means of the data from a broader range of dialects and excavate documents, so let's take a look at this table. So these two words have S-Y onset in Middle Chinese and correspond to T-S, so aspirated African in Min. And these two words have S-T onset in Old Chinese, so they were attested in S-Y connections and theological stuff. And these two words like test and word for slow have S-Y in Middle Chinese and they correspond to T-S-H aspirated African in Min. And these two words have voices L in Old Chinese, and they were attested in S-Y connections. So we can use these corresponds to some basic words like in theological evidence, so let's take a look at the word for water. So water S-Y corresponds to T-S, so an aspirated African in Min, so we can reconstruct the word as S-T. But without this data, we couldn't reconstruct basic word water, right? So this is really interesting. And then the word for a few, so a few is the same thing, so correspond to T-S, so an aspirated African in Min, so we can reconstruct this like stale kind of like that. And word for head, so as I mentioned above, so head has S-Y connections with Wei, and Wei has D in Middle Chinese, so we don't know whether it came from S-T or voices L. But only Xiaoman Amoy, the word head has the aspirated T-S-H, so we can prostrate voices L. In addition to this, the onset L, voices L is artistic in the great documents from the clone, so I got this phrase, let the people step on. So this character, Tao Wei, represents the step-on Tao. So step-on Tao is reconstructed like LU, based on Xiaoman connections. And then here's my hypothesis. So the characters having L only can represent words having L in the bamboo slips. So the word for Wei represents the word having L, so we can prostrate L for the word Wei. And also the head is a phonetic element Tao, right? So we can reconstruct voices L, kind of like this. And then the word for hand, the hand is S-Y in Middle Chinese, and it corresponds to T-S-H aspirated Africa in Min. So we can assume that the word for hand did not come from S-T, but this data do not tell us where the hand came from, or voices L, I will link it. So we cannot reconstruct the word for hand on set. So in this case, we can use the anger's high perspective or Sagao's perspective. So use these textual variations to reconstruct the onset of the word for hand. And the word for a wide animal. So a wide animal does not have a situation in connections, and a data flow mean does not tell us anything about the onset, only the entire frequency. So there's no correspondence. But we can find a phonetic clone. So the character wide animal represents the word show, meaning keep. So this word, keep, defend, does not have a situation in connections, but the data flow mean could be useful. So the word for keep on the defend S-Y corresponds to T-S. So based on this correspondence, we can reconstruct the word for keep and defend S-T. And based on the high process I mentioned above, so the word having L must represent word having L. So in other words, word having T must represent word having T. So based on this hypothesis, we can reconstruct the wide animal like S-T. So I just added data flow mean. So these five or six or seven words that don't have theological evidence, but if we use the data flow mean, we can reconstruct these words. So the thing I want to do is that I want to make this data available openly because the probability of reconstruction is different from each words, right? So I want to make it available openly. And then in addition to mean, so guzhan, so a variety of Wajshan dialects spoken in North, Western Hunan show the same correspondence like Midochene is S-Y, guzhan T-S. So to write an aspirated African, T-S and T-S, the word for word T-S, the word for a few T-S. So yeah, Wajshan is here, fujian means here. So some schools think so mean, they put mean and Wajshan into one line, but I'm not sure about it. So Baxiang and Sagao said some features in Wajshan appear to be shared with mean. So about they maybe shared the retentions rather than shared innovation. So it would be premature to put them together with mean in a separate group. And then I know some scholars with Wajshan and Tzaijiya, Tzaijiya is spoken in Hunan province, or no, Guizhou province, they put them into one branch. But I just came back from Guizhou. I'm researching Tzaijiya languages. I researched 600 words, something like that, but I couldn't find the same correspondence like S-Y and T-S. So we're still working on this. And I added the data from Guizhou and Wajshan. So as I mentioned above, so I want to make this data available and then let others do know the probability of reconstruction. So conclusion. So it is indispensable to use theological evidence in all the Chinese. But some words, of course, lack these theological evidence. So in this case, we have to use comparative data. So as for reconstruct of Middle Chinese S-Y, so the data from mean dialect is really useful and helpful, but they do not always show us about every difference in all the Chinese phonology. So some words lack the theological evidence and others lack data from dialects and other languages. So in any case, we have to make use of these data, both of these data, theological evidence and comparative evidence, just like Bergstein and Sakal did in the study of all the Chinese. So thank you, thank you very much.