 Mae'r rhaid i'w ni'n ddweud am rhaid i'ch gwybod i'r rhagor yn fwy o'r ddweud, fod yn ei gwybod i'ch ffyrdd i'r ddweud, a bwydau o'r bwyd. Felly, yna yw'r rhagor y gallai'r ei bwyd, mae'n ddweud yw'n ddweud yw'n ddweud o'r rhagor i'r rhagor, o'r rhagor, o'r rhagor, o'r rhagor. Rhaid i ddweud o'r rhagor i'r rhagor i'r rhagor i'r rhagor? Mae'r bwysig o yr Eidio росrifiwr yma ddodd cynyddu cyfnodd, wedi bod ei bwysig dyfnodd, ac nid oedd ystodd o'i pryd ac yn gwneud o'r lehau. Byddai'n ei wneud bod i'n ei bwysig oherwydd, rydych chi eisiau wedi cael ei bawb i'r reidio ac byddai yn dangos ei ffwrdd, ac mae gyrch i'n defnyddio chi'n gallu bwysig. Ac oherwydd, i fi gydig yn y rhai hwn i bwysig i'r reidio ymarferadau, yna yn ychaf gwneud symud o'r helpu. I've collaborated on a number of research projects. The first, and perhaps the most interesting, in a general sense, came from a woman doctor on the obstetric unit. She observed that the number of women in late pregnancy would develop quite late syndrome, which is now called deep pain, conbosis, and the calf. She thought it might result from the head of the baby being so firmly pressed into the pelvis if part of the structure of the blood flow in the femoral vein did over the pelvis from the upper leg. This could cause the blood to run more slowly than usual, and therefore for the corpuscles to be able more easily to attach themselves to vein walls and part of the blood path. Could we use these new attributes to measure the speed of penis blood in the leg? She devised a method of injecting a little code in 24 as saline into a vein in the foot and checking it's arrival at the groin to the feeling like a counter. We tested the method out on 100 normals, so there were many for students and nurses, but we called them normals for the purpose. We then tested some pregnant ladies and had a small group of them that had a blood flow of about one-third normals, which we've let it to normal immediately after the delivery of the baby. We then tested people who in those days were subject to complete bed rest, heart patients, and post-operative patients generally, and found that flowing of the blood flow was closely related to the incidence of conbosis. If therefore when you have a relics operation, you are bullied out of them on the following day, you can blame it on the work of Osborne and Wright from 1950. You can also blame the accountants who were the reason they had this say on the test. Another project involving injecting macroscopes is a regular active blood circulation, letting the rate of clearance from the bloodstream. Usually, as expected, the countrate between the thighs would fall in a more or less exponential way. Sometimes, however, there was a sudden rise in the countrate, but by our pull-up by our pull-up, it's packed to the same as we would have expected, had there been no rise. After a few minutes, though we hadn't dropped out, we thought that we would have expected in the absence of that sudden rise. We tried to inspire a call for this, and it appeared to be totally unreliable to calculate from the patient's thighs. We eventually realised that the laboratory used was on the same level as the rate of therapy department. If one particular treatment was being used for being pointing towards the window, any x-radius emerging would scatter from all of the fuchsies outside the window. This, again, could be scattered by another wall some 40 feet away, just outside of our boundary, some radiation entering our window. It seemed quite incredible, despite the cause, and we checked that the times for our sudden changes of countrate couldn't have been kept to the times of operation of the x-ray, too. One of these led you to more aware of the relatively fast amount of radiation used in the rate of therapy, instead of the amount detected by a target counter. Not an awful radiation. For example, I normally have lunch with some of the medical staff. One day, I heard about the patients that had come into the badly smashed drawer. A certain use of the well-barn had kept me from manipulating all the pieces into shape into place, putting a stainless steel pin in each of them, and fixing walls to a stainless steel frame, which was also fixed, the silver staff, to keep the upper and lower teeth correctly alive. Unfortunately, it also developed around each of the stainless steel pins, and the jack wood mass steel. After the health of physics, took an appropriate meter to the wall, there was a potential of about half a volt between the silver staff and the stainless steel pins, because that's when the power stopped locating through the patients. Going back to my lathe, I still had it, and then up to the insulating washers, which I inserted between the silver staff and the stainless steel bar, so that was disappeared overnight. Another morning, I was called to the physical medicine department. They just got the new machine, about the size of a good-sized radiogram, and it's a new machine, and they were trying to test it out, and so they said it had two probes, and the idea was that you put those into a patient's muscle, and then on the machine, you could either see the vapor on the scope, or you could read the average intensity of the defections on the meter, or you could hear the chips coming out of an out-speaker. The trouble was that the first bit in the sight of them was very disturbed. It all came out of an out-speaker, because the BBC radio was one of those. I got down there in the afternoon at the time to hear the four-leven song, but what others will have happened was it hadn't served the patient for a second in the area, and the whole thing was the way they would receive it. In 1952, the world's first nuclear bomb was tested. A radioactive fallout shot up in the pacifist fallout all over the world in subsequent months, and many a research council realised that this fallout might just cause genetic effects in the population of the UK as a whole, and this would be investigated. It is a popular machine that has a committee to look into it, who quickly realised they had no idea how big or how small such an effect might seem. They therefore decided that at the time, at the same time, at the comparison, they tried to find out what order of genetic hazards for the population in acting in the UK as a result of other sources of radiation, among which, of course, were radiation from coffee craig, and especially in aircraft crew, and medical uses of x-rays and radioactivity. The work I had done on radiation doses to trajectory of craig patients forced them to ask me to join them and make an estimate of the average amount of radiation likely to be received by the co-meds of the average new pacifist from this course. It was special to go on, but I made an estimate which turned out to be for the same order of magnitude as that which was a natural radioactivity. But in a massive report, it was debated in the House of Commons. There are a few people, two thousand, who have the report being discussed by the politicians. I was in the gallery for the debate, and the one thing that's outstanding in my mind is that there's a young red-headed woman on the Labour pageant who is pestering the minister for all sorts of things he couldn't possibly answer. She was very well known. Labour MQ began minister for all that sort of thing later. Labour, the name escapes me. That's right, Barbara Castle, that's right, thank you. Sorry, Mr Pigefer. I'm trying to get things down my own parma, I use to get them right, but my memory is gone. You've got a short time coming up. In response to the debate, the minister announced he was setting up a committee on the chairmanship of Lord Adrian, the best chance for a Cambridge University, to look into the radiological hazards to patients. This turned out to be quite a big operation. Local scientific work team run by Professor Stiles of Leeds, a member of the committee, boiled this down as a middle-class partner for myself. And if for some years of real life I really needed to have a PhD, it was too early to provide the necessary material. I rang the minister of health and right to UCH, asking them to release me sufficiently from my routine, which is to carry out this work that I've committed, which was accepted in great reluctance by UCH. In fact, it's been a month or some year I had a note from the administrator asking how much long I was, how much time I was now spending on that kind of needs-to-health project. So I looked at the full report of the ministry show, and I thought that I was going to put a quarter-half years out of my life. Anyway, I did receive my land on PhD in 1961, just 20 years after my PhD. In 1962 I was invited to go to King's College Hospital direct from the medical physics department to the case of the consultant. I've known now and tried to my own department, and no longer part of a way to have done a bit of art. So, after I arrived at King's, I was having a discussion in the office of the house governor, that is Chief Executive, when there was a telephone call for me from the World Health Organization in Geneva. I was asked to take a trial for Professor Manio in a lecture on radiation protection in diagnostic radiology in the Middle East, together with Professor Dick Chamberlain and the School of Adelphia. Manio was ill, and so it looked as he suggested my name. The house governor previously served at the World Cancer Hospital, Dresden Free, and you would respect him, Manio, for the string of calls, and I found out that I was able to do five million each country in three weeks, with a pretty hard work involved in this hospital's well-assuming lectures. Because in weeks of it, I was asked to take a trial for Manio again, this time on the design and production of a general purpose x-ray unit for developing countries. W-H-O had had one of their staff positions in the digit home, with what turned out to be gross hope exposure to x-rays, because the machine he'd been using was almost totally deficient in radiation protection. Manio opened the London design team for the new machine, and the draft specification was sent to a number of x-ray manufacturers, so the commenter, when they had something like this, W-H-O would send a team to inspect it. They all replied to them with it, so they had nothing infected like that at the moment, and they were sure that W-H-O seemed like to look at a new model ABC Fyre did, which was very, very similar. For the lecture, which is in one term in London, one in Holland, and two in Germany, none of their offers could be accepted before them, before their machines had been modified. They had been visited one or four times. W-H-O had ordered for one of each to be called in four similar village hospitals in Kenya, but they'd been there for six months. We were asked to inspect them, to check whether all the parts had arrived and be corrected and called, because any had really rupt it through, and so on. In one village, I pretended that there was nothing carried out that I'd recommended. As a result, it would necessary to direct the beam across the table. It would either go on to irradiate the radiography of the control panel, or to irradiate through the open door to irradiate the cure patient to waiting outside. The protestant acroversial was impossible, and one of the cables was in too short. The specification would immediately result into the more out-of-brake for an intention to be inserted when necessary. I was a part of the protestant for 15 years and came across many interesting and some pretty horrible sites during the visit to some 15 countries. I was entering the media to set up a film bank service for their hospitals. They knew clearly any of the set up had one, but wouldn't share it with the hospitals. I visited the country's newest university hospital to achieve this fate only a couple of months before. Half usual coffee in the hospital office. I asked to acrobeat the radiologist in charge of the equate department. No, we don't have a way to answer this. What about the doctor in charge then? No doctor. Then who's in charge of the equate department? Oh, it's a way to talk with her. Can I meet him? No, you're wearing a clothes this week. Who's running the department today? Oh, the dark room technician. Can I meet him? Yes, of course, come along. So I met the dark room technician. He asked me what to do with this lab labelled KB. He's just had a set of 60 for everything. But the greatest worry was that those and 17 patients who just had fractals said that they'd request that he, the dark room technician, should say whether the result was fractals had to be. Excuse me. You may get how don't do much lecturing these days. In two course, radioactives have to say that how to radioactives safely in a hospital using them. I was called to a small hospital near King's one day because Peter had taken the pin mark, radioactives were well tested and tested him with everything else. It didn't matter much that day because the lab had not been used to radioactives. So I was called in for getting this ever happening again. I had a long talk with Peter in getting nowhere and he's led me up a competition and said, of course you know, I've never managed to read and write. I've got a card to him and he's told me of one card to him that just takes the mechanical hands and that sort of a module that he's used for. One one, sorry. I went to King's. I was involved in a project that might be of interest. After one part of it meeting, I was at the post fire health businesses from Oldmaston, James and London, UK, a weapons. He had a detector arranged to be particularly sensitive to the 2MED radiation from sodium-24. Some of the natural sodium in a person exposed to neutrons would be transformed into sodium-24 and a rough measurement of this would give a quick indication of the magnitude of the neutron exposure. However, he needed to calibrate this in terms of the amount of sodium-24 in the body and didn't really want to bring a neutron explosion for the purpose. Did we ever inject sodium-24 into patients? And if so, could he try out his counter on some of them? It so happened that John Anson, our professor of medicine, was particularly interested in the body of sodium and was carrying out just the kind of sodium-24 injections required. The counter was tried and the calibration figure obtained. His company, though, has expected that he's determining the amount of sodium actually in the body of a patient, inputting out the criteria that it deserves in, but not body content. It occurred that we turned this idea around because of the assuming body sodium content and calculating the neutron exposure from the sodium-24 produced. Because of the minute that a whole body neutron dose of known magnitude measures the sodium-24 produced and calculates the body content of sodium. We opposed power and got permission to carry out such experiments during the night and the next day a neutron generator would be available. A trial run in which John Anson and I were irradiated so that the method was feasible and the good deal of work on the physics of this gave my colleague Keith Backley his PhD. We then applied for a research fund for the neutron generator and a whole body monitor but the cost was going to be enormous. So the fund invented this at two institutions. One already had a neutron generator and only wanted to hold that encounter while the other had a whole body monitor and indeed it was a neutron generator. So by the. I can go on about recent developments in medical physics. Keith Backley, Keith Scanning, Mbeku residence, Imaging and many uses of electronics all the time and so on and so forth. But I don't think that currently medical physics is much more familiar with these and other recent developments than I am. However for countries and what the profession was like in the first half of my 60 years so many more stories I could tell but I don't know for you with one more. But 1948, so if we should come to how one-to-one became available in the case of a very large cancerous flower it came to use it from abroad for treatment. And then it was stopped after it got hold of as much as one-to-one as I could, very urgent, of her treatment. I mentioned it at the beginning that it was something like 200 gigadecroyals and it was arranged for a list of this for the same afternoon. So before leaving that evening I went to the water to see the ball as well to find that she had a relapse. It was incontinent, it was not going to live long. In fact she was likely to die during the night. I created this so that when she did die certain precautions would need to be taken. She could have most of the radio iodine in her body but some would be in her urine and also in the bed. I offered to come in at any hour as required but in any case the nursing staff would closer rise as long as they let the body in the water against all normal requirements. It was as if I'd reached the length of the sister's sufficiently to rest the wait for the morning. At 9am the next morning a patient was still in her bed having died at 3 o'clock. I got four nurses gowns in blood to contain the contamination. As if to the body up while I put the sheets and the water to the ground sheets into a dustbin to replace them with a plastic sheet, I supervised what was known as last offices and then went and had a well-end cup of coffee. I was then approached by the ward system who had the relatives ask for permission so they take the ashes and much of the radioactivity back home with them. I said this would be too dangerous and he sits it on an ordinary very old. I then found out that she was a tourist. Had you been as strict as I was told, I don't know all the stuff I was told, all of our doctors would have to be performed by a rabbi and on his own. However, rabbi have no more training in radioactive contamination and in medical physics and theology. This suggested to me that we might have difficulties in similar circumstances with patients of other faiths. Together with the ward system I conducted a survey for Muslim in his 30th intervention after death would have to be approved in advance by an imam. For a Hindu, permission would be imperative and the same day if at all possible. For a Jehovah's Witness, the watcher would have sat by the mid-size until death radiation has us all now and so on. So I wrote a transcript of the Hoffman administration making a suggestion in case the situation ever arose again. It suggests that I should be instructed to ensure that as far as possible we avoid contributing any religious attendance of the distraught relatives. I should apply the normal radiation protection procedure as far as I could. If this would cause discrease to relatives, I would also take whatever minimum steps one has to say to avoid this. It never happened again in my time. When the unhappy radiation regulation room started, I tried to get some wording inserted for the same effect. I was told this would come to me in the wording of the European directive. I said it was obvious that the European directive was in error, but it cut no ice at all. However, if I would have been more normal assured that in such circumstances the Hoffman would never be a product of taking it for a correction. There was still nothing in effect, nothing for that effect in writing. Oh dear. I really hadn't got to the penultimate paragraph of my notes, and I've only just really mentioned the ionising radiation regulation. I was, in fact, on, I can just redeem with the drafting of these. So if anybody is interested in that sort of thing, please ask about it when I finish and I'll be interested in something about it. Some of the things that went on in that were really quite entertaining. This is for the personal reminiscence of the old but not necessarily good days on medical physics, which I wouldn't restrict on anybody's today. I've been in some way since I was no age 30 checking up on this. I'm going to our profession primary to give you what skills I have for the benefit of sick patients. If you're a physicist, will you also help workers? I've been greatly gratified to see that it can constantly provide you with a medical physics that today is available for the benefit of sick patients. I've been very patient. I'd like to ask you a question. Pulling back about maybe six to seven years ago in one hospital in Birmingham, I was asked to get involved with the decontamination of the room, which was contaminated with radium. And that room was used for many years. There was actually a line of flooring and all the adjacent rooms, again, was used and that area was used for hiding terraces. And when I was asked to get involved with it from the radiation protection room, didn't hear from the back, I'm quite excited. When I was involved in getting, because I was working with radiation protection to get rid of the radium, we had all the environmental things practice and help me to take care of the whole coming in. And while you have to decontaminate the area if you're rid of all the radium, and I had, we had so much problem with that because to begin with, we have to quantify what is there in the floor. And of course, we then started to some digging. And what did we get? We discovered that we have to take the line of flooring up. And we then, below that you have path air flooring, and then we have to take the path flooring up, and then below that you have the concrete, and some of the radium is going to the concrete. And of course, the inspectors came in and often they saw it monitoring for contamination of all the daughters of radium. So looking at the sort of the air vents, and they were all contaminated. And we estimated to begin with that, it may cost about approaching maybe 100,000 pounds to begin with. And the inspectors were sort of absolutely clear that that you could quantify, remove all the radium, factor, and send it to the national disposal service. And it was really difficult because we don't, the hospital didn't have the money, that kind of money to get rid of. And what then happened is that we had to get a company in to dig it all up. And they agreed finally that if you have enough, the hospital decided that the best way for it was maybe to demolish the whole building of the room, and then get the radium, put them in so many skips, to get rid of the radium and sending it off to landfill. Now looking back, I think for many years, in the, again, the adjacent rooms, we also found a lot of what you call storage places. It's maybe going back to the wall time, you know what I mean, the full radium, and sending it for the second against the bombs and all that. And we found that the work itself, it's so, the bodies, it's really an incredible amount of time you spend on it, and again, it costs about 50,000, I think. But what happened is that the whole site was then demolished, sent off to landfill. And at the end of the day, the whole area was then cleared. And again, the inspectors came in to ask for evidence of what you had done and what you had monitored. And now it is a new hospital. But what I can understand is that how come that, if they knew there was contamination there, going back to so many years ago, they were still using the rooms. So all the services working there, they are aware of that contamination, I think, because they've been monitoring the room for years. Well, maybe, I mean, I'm not, this was in Birmingham, sir. I was in Birmingham, yeah. Well, I know the number of situations which arose in different places. I was out in a little of the city of North Birmingham, I heard of, I wasn't called personally. I told them what happened there was that one day, when the nurse went to get the radio mouth to the stage, she picked and gave it up in her corset. But it was all hot over the static in it. The tip, the seal tip had come off and all the concerts had vanished. Now, they began to investigate this. They found it, particularly the two of them, used the previous speech for treatment, come back four days before they put it away. And when the nurse had put it away, a visit that she put it into the hot water steriliser, switched it on, then we'd went and had to have a cup of coffee, and it was very hot, she had two cups or something, but she came back, the steriliser boiled dry. And it traced the moisture inside the tube and it exploded, it blowing everything out, it went away. And it wasn't loaded until four days later. That was something like 50 milligrams of radium in the enormous quantity. It just made life more interesting, if it wanted to be more interesting. The sterilising was used the day after the evening, after this explosion happened, for a farewell party to the board system who moved to the appointment. Now, they got down to it and really did something about it. They found that they extended pass at the premises, but the radium room, the corridor beside it and the roof above all had to be taken down and rebuilt. And all the people involved, at the end of the hospital and in that party, had to go 100 miles to the nearest whole body monitor, to have body radium checked, and nobody had shipped on board as much as the permissible body burden, mercifully. But that's the sort of thing that happens, that people do go on using rooms, and we say no or fix that thing, and have to leave that problem to check. I mean, I've met several instances of that. In fact, I'm told that several places in London where a factory that has luminous paint was bombed, and you could sort of detect the radium if you knew the right place to go and look for it. So it's not easy to get rid of radium, actually, if you want to. It was very difficult to get rid of it, and all this will happen. Exactly, exactly. Do you know where all that radium is now, that was used in the UK? Where is it? I don't know. Do you know? I don't know. Anybody can help on this. Where all the radium that Hock used to use is now gone. No, sorry, can't help. I tried to get contact with Hocky and me, but they suspected that I was a terrorist. I think whenever on a tour, some years ago, you said about a regular therapy patient that had needles stuck in them, and it actually varied. It's a different effect. Did you dream of that? I didn't hear about the work case at that time. This was, I'm told, before the war. I'm told the story was something like this, that the patients, for some reason, they want to take the needles out a bit early from the treatment time. But the patient rejected it, so it was a ridiculous thing. It's never really about how they give it to the operation. No, no operation. The patient discharged itself. So the hospital got in touch with the GP, but the GP couldn't take it in person. But of course she died not awfully long after that. And they couldn't do anything other than allow the patients to get in one of London's services. I don't know which services, but I'm told they're still there. You've told all these other stories about the age activity and what have you. Is there any evidence that this has led to any increased risk of cancer or decreased life expectancy or anything like that, for some of the early practitioners? A lot of work has been done on that, and I'm sorry I don't have the details of my fingertips, but there is a lot of work that has been done on that. Unfortunately, everybody's very anxious to show that there's a small amount of radiation. Of course, there's no harm. There's one of the things you cannot do. You can't prove a negative. You can only prove that the amount of harm may be very small, but you can never prove it as just nil. There's one of the things that people will think about, the hazards to people that you can bring away from anything else that haven't passed off a measure of. If all things are going to be dangerous, then it's going to damage people. That can be known to the face, but it will control people. As an indication, you can't prove a negative. I'm sorry, I can't give you the answer of the cup, but it's all over the place. Nobody has asked about the unacradiation regulation, but despite what we've got, the story was this. Europe got together an expert committee to draw up some sort of draft regulations, but they didn't have anybody in the local field on their committee, so there weren't any interesting mistakes that they made. However, they then sent this with a directive for all members to take, you will have local laws on radiation safety, but I've never heard of the dental service at the nuclear power station, so rather like the enclosed bubble, get on with it. But it came to London, it was mounted on the desk of the Health and Safety Commission on the technical advisory group to advise the lawyers on what the science was all about. Perhaps I was put on to look after the interests of the health service. Together with a radiologist from Lancashire, I wasn't able to come down if you couldn't. So I was there looking after the interest of the health service, and this is really quite an aspect because our philosophy, even now, comes from people who work with radiation. There, of course, you get no radiation at all or the minimum possible. In medical work, you have to get people radiation for the good of themselves, and sometimes in large amounts. All sorts of problems arise. One of the first ones that arose was when there was a draft regulation that came through, which said if you ever were looking radioactive between one building and another, it must be a securely proved container. I was sorry, but I'm not for this. Why not? Well, I said we haven't looked at all the radioactive in the patients or testers and turned them home. You understand our patients own a few of the equipment container. One of the charts on this model was in fact the