 6. Ocean Palaces Ocean Greyhounds, present day floating palaces, regal, appointments, passenger accommodation, food consumption, the 1000 foot boat. The strides of naval architecture and marine engineering have been marvelous within the past generation. Today huge leviathans glide over the waves with a swiftness and safety deemed absolutely impossible 50 years ago. In view of the luxurious accommodations and princely surroundings to be found on the modern ocean palaces, it is interesting to take a look back now, almost a hundred years to the time when the Savano was the first steamship to cross the Atlantic. True the voyage of this pioneer of steam from Savano to Liverpool was not much of a success, but she managed to crawl across the sails very materially aiding the engines and heralded the dawn of a new day in transatlantic travel. No other steamboat attempted the trip for almost 20 years after. Until in 1838, the Great Western made the run in 15 days. This revolutionized water travel and set the whole world talking. It was the beginning of the passing of the sailing ship and was an event for rejoicing. In the old wooden hulks with their lazily flapping wings waiting for a breeze to stir them, men and women and children huddled together like so many animals in a pen had to spend weeks and months on the voyage between Europe and America. There was little or no room for sanitation. The space was crowded. Deadly germs lurked in every cranny and crevice and consequently hundreds died. To many indeed the sailing ship became a floating hearse. In those times, in their not so remote, a voyage was dreaded as a calamity. Only necessity compelled the undertaking. It was not travel for pleasure. For pleasure under such circumstances and amid such surroundings was impossible. The poor emigrants who were compelled through stress and poverty to leave their homes for a foreign country feared not toil in a new land, but they feared the long voyage with its attending horrors and dangers. Dangerous as it was, for most of the sailing vessels were unseaworthy and when a storm swept the waters, they were as children's toys at the mercy of wind and wave. When the passenger stepped on board, he always had the dread of a watery grave before him. How different today? Danger has been eliminated almost to the vanishing point and the mighty monsters of steel and oak now cut through the waves and storms and hurricanes with as much ease as a duck swims through a pond. From the time the Great Western was launched, steamship sailing between American and English ports became an established institution. Soon after the Great Western's first voyage, a sturdy New England quaker from Nova Scotia named Samuel Canard went over to London to try and interest the British government in a plan to establish a line of steamships between the two countries. He succeeded in raising 270,000 pounds and built the Britannica, the first Canard vessel to cross the Atlantic. This was in 1840. As ships go now, she was a small craft indeed. Her gross tonnage was 1,154 and her horsepower was 750. She carried only first-class passengers and these only to the limit of 100. There was not much in the way of accommodation as the quarters were cramped. The state room small and the sanitation and ventilation defective. It was on the Britannica that Charles Dickens crossed over to America in 1842 and he has given us, in his usual style, a pen picture of his impressions aboard. He stated that the saloon reminded him of nothing so much as of a hearse in which a number of half-starved stewards attempted to warm themselves by a glimmering stove and that the state rooms so-called were boxes in which the bunks were shelves spread with patches of filthy bed clothing, somewhat after the style of a mustard plaster. This criticism must be taken with a little reservation. Dickens was a pessimist and always sensorious and as he had been fetid and feasted with the fat of the land, he expected that he should have been entertained in kingly quarters on shipboard. But because things did not come up to his expectations, he dipped his pen in vitriol and began to criticize. At any rate, the Britannica in her day was looked upon as the nay plus ultra in naval architecture, the very acme of marine engineering. The highest speed she developed was eight and one-half knots or about nine and three-quarters miles per hour. She covered the passage from Liverpool to Boston in fourteen and one-half days, which was then regarded as a marvelous feat and one which was proclaimed throughout England with triumph. For a long time the Britannica remained queen of the seas for speed, but in 1852 the Atlantic record was reduced to nine and a half days by the Arctic. In 1876 the city of Paris cut down the time to eight days and four hours. Twelve years later in 1879 the Arizona still further reduced it to seven days and eight hours. In 1881 the Alaska, the first vessel to receive the title of Ocean Greyhound, made the trip in six days and twenty-one hours. In 1885 the Umbria bounded over in six days and two hours. In 1890 the two tonic of the White Star line came across in five days, 18 hours and 28 minutes, which was considered the limit for many years to come. It was not long however until the Canard lowered the colors of the White Star, when the Lusania in 1893 brought the record down to five days and twelve hours. For a dozen years or so the limit of speed hovered around the five and a half day mark, the laurels being shared alternately by the vessels of the Canard and White Star companies. Then the Germans entered the field of competition with the steamers of from 14,500 to 20,000 tons of register and from 28,000 to 40,000 horsepower. The Dutch land soon began setting the pace for the Ocean Greyhounds, while other vessels of the north German Lloyd line that one transatlantic honors, with a Kaiser Wilhelm II, Kaiser Wilhelm der Große, Krampins, Wilhelm and Krampensessen Cecile, all remarkably fast to boats with even modern luxury aboard that science could devise. These vessels are equipped with wireless telegraphy, submarine signaling systems, watertight compartments and every other safety appliance known to marine skill. The Kaiser Wilhelm der Große raised the standard of German supremacy in 1902 by making the passage from Scherberg to Sandy Hook light ship in five days and 15 hours. In 1909 however the sister steam ships Moritania and Lusitania of the Canard line lowered all previous ocean records by making the trip in a little over four and a half days. They have been keeping up this speed to the present time and are universally regarded as the fastest and best equipped steam ships in the world. The very last word in ocean travel. On her mid-September voyage the Moritania has broken all ocean records by making the passage from Queenstown to New York in four days ten hours and forty seven minutes. But they are closely pursued by the white star greyhounds such as the Oceanic, the Celtic and the Cedric, steam ships of the worldwide fame for service, appointments and equipment. Yet at the present writing the Canard company has another vessel on the stocks to be named the Falconia which in measurements will eclipse the other two and which they are confident will make the Atlantic trip inside four days. The white star company is also building two immense boats to be named the Olympic and Titanic. They will be 840 feet in length and will be the largest ships afloat. However it is said that the freight and passenger room is being more considered in the construction than speed and they will aim to lower no records. Each will be able to accommodate 5000 passengers besides a crew of 600. All the great liners of the present day may just be styled ocean palaces as far as luxuries and general appointments are concerned. But as the Moritania and Lucitania are best known a description of either of these will convey an idea to stay at homes of the regal magnificence and splendors of the floating hotels which modern science places at the disposal of the traveling public. Though sister ships and modeled on similar lines the Moritania and Lucitania differ somewhat in construction. Of the two the Moritania is the more typical ship as well as the more popular. This modern triumph of the naval architect and marine engineer was built by the firm Swan, Hunter and Co at Welles End on the Tine in 1907. The following are her dimensions. Length overall 790 feet. Length between perpendicular 760 feet. Breadth 88 feet. Depth molded 60.5 feet. Gross tonnage 32,000. Draft 33.5 feet. Displacement 38,000 tons. She has accommodation space for 563 first cabin, 500 second cabin and 1,300 third class passengers. She carries a crew of 390 engineers, 70 sailors, 350 stewards, a couple of score of stewardesses, 50 cooks, the officers and captain besides a maritime band, a dozen or so telephone and wireless telegraph operators, editor and printers for the wireless bulletin published on board and two attendants for the elevator. The type of engine is what is known as the Parsons Turbine. There are 23 double-ended and two single-ended boilers. The engines develop 68,000 horsepower. They are fed by 192 furnaces. The heating surface is 159,000 square feet. The great surface is 4,060 square feet. The steam pressure is 195 pounds to the square inch. The highest speed attained has been almost 26 knots or 30 miles an hour. At this rate the number of revolutions is 180 to the minute. The coal daily consumed by the fiery maw of the furnaces is enormous. On one trip between Liverpool and New York more than 7,000 tons is required which is a consumption of over 1,500 tons daily. There are nine decks, seven of which are above the water line. Corticine has been largely used for deck covering instead of wood as it is much lighter. On the boat deck which extends over the greater part of the center of the ship are located several of the beautiful en-suit cabins. A BAFTA ease at the forward end are the grand entrance hall, the library, the music room, and the lounging room and smoking room for the first cabin passengers. There is splendid promenading space on the boat deck where passengers can exercise to their hearts content and also indulge in games and sports with all the freedom of field life. Many life boats swing on davits and instead of being a hindrance or obstacles act as shades from the sunshine and as breaks from the wind. In this space for the first class passengers are arranged a large number of cabins. What are known as the regal suites are both port and starboard and along each side of the main deck are more on suite rooms. On the shelter deck there are no first class cabin quarters. At the forward end of this deck are the very powerful napier engines for working the anchor gear. A BAFTA this on the starboard side is the general lounging room for third class passengers. While on the port side is their smoking room with a companion way leading to the third class dining saloon below and to the third class cabins on the main and lower decks. The third class galleys are accommodated on the main deck house and close by is a set of refrigerating machinery used in connection with the rooms for the storage of supplies for the kitchen department. The side of the ship for a considerable distance aft of this is plated up to the promenade deck level so that the third class passengers have not only convenient rooms but a protected promenade. A BAFTA this promenade is another open one. Indeed the accommodations for the third class are as good as what the first class were accustomed to on most of the liner some dozen years ago. To the left of the grand staircase on the deckhouse is a children's dining saloon and nursery. On the top deck are dining saloons for all three classes of passengers that for the third being forward for the first amid ships and for the second near the stern four hundred and seventy first class passengers can be seated at a time 250 second class and more than 500 of the third class. The main deck is given up entirely to state rooms. The whole of the lower deck forward is also arranged for third class state rooms. The firemen and other engine room and stock hold workers are located in rooms above the machinery with separate entrances and exits to and from their work. Promenade and exercise space is provided for them on the shelter deck which is fenced off from the space of the second and third class passenger. Amid ships is a coal banker with a compartment under the engines for the storage of supplies. The coal trimmings are accommodated alongside the engine easing and a bath to this are the mailrooms with accommodation for the stewards and other helpers. The oar lop or eighth deck is devoted entirely to machinery with coal bunkers on each side of the boilers to provide against the effect of collisions. The general scheme of color throughout the ship is pleasing and harmonious. The wood for the most part is oak and mahogany. There are 50,000 square feet of oak in parquet flooring. All the carving and tracing is done in the wood. No superpositions or stucco work whatever being used to show reliefs. The grand stairway shows the Italian Renaissance style of the 16th century. The panels are a French walnut. The carving of columns and pilasters is of various designs but the aggregate is pleasing in effect. The library extends across the deckhouse 33 by 56 feet. The walls of the deckhouse are bowed out to form bay windows. When you first enter the library the effect is as though you were looking at shimmering marble. This is owing to the lightness of the panels which are sycamores stained in light gray. The mantle piece is of white statuary marble. The great swing doors which admit you have beveled glass panels set in bronze casings. The chairs have mahogany frames done in light plush. The first class lounging room is probably the most artistic as well as the most sumptuous apartment in the ship. The panels are a beautiful ingrained mahogany, duly polished to rich brown. The white ceiling is of simple design with boldly carved moldings and is supported by columns embossed in gold of exquisite workmanship. Some of the panels are of curiously woven tapestries, the fruit of oriental looms, chandeliers of beautiful design and rich bronze and crystal depend from the ceiling. The curtains hanging with their soft folds against the dull gold of the carved curtain boxes are of a charming cream silk and with their flower borders lend a tone both sumptuous and refined. The carpet is of a slender trellis design with bluish pink roses trailing over a pearl gray ground and forms a perfect foil to the splendid furniture. The chairs are a polished beach covered with 18th century brocade. The smoking room of the first class is done in rich oak carving with an inlaid border around the panels. An unusual feature in the main part of the room is a jube passageway extending from the whole length and divided into recesses with divans and card tables. Writing tables may be found in secluded nooks free from interruption. The windows are of unusual size, are semicircular and give a home-like appearance to the room. The dining saloon is in light oak with all carvings worked in the wood. A children's nursery off the main stairway in the deckhouse is done in mahogany. Enamled white panels depict the old favorite of the four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie, an air of delicate refinement and rich luxury hangs about the regal rooms. A suite consists of drawing room, dining room, two bedrooms, bathroom, and a private corridor. The drawing and dining rooms of these suites are paneled in East India stained wood, probably the hardest and most durable of all timber. The bedrooms are in Georgian style finished in white with satin hangings. The special staterooms are also finished in rich woods on white and gold and have damask and silk hangings and draperies. An idea of the richness and magnificence of the interior decorations may be obtained when it is learned that the cost of these decorations exceeded three million dollars. The galleys, pantries, bakery and confectionery and utensil cleaning rooms extend the full length of the ship. Electricity plays an important part in the culinary department. Electric motors, mixed dough, run grills and roasters, clean knives and manipulate plate racks and other articles of the kitchen. The main cooking range for the saloon is 24 by 8 feet, heated by coal. There are four steam boilers and 12 steam ovens. There are extensive cold storage compartments and refrigerating chambers. In connection with the commissariat department, it is interesting to note the food supply carried for a trip of this floating caravancery. Here is a list of the leading supplies needed for a trip, but there are hundreds of others too numerous to mention. 40,000 pounds of fresh beef, 1,000 pounds of corned beef, 8,000 pounds of mutton, 800 pounds of lamb, 600 pounds of veal, 500 pounds of pork, 4,000 pounds of fish, 2,000 fowls, 100 geese, 150 turkeys, 350 ducks, 400 pigeons, 250 partridges, 250 grouse, 200 pheasants, 800 quail, 200 stype, 35 tons of potatoes, 75 hampers of vegetables, 500 quarts of ice cream, 3,500 quarts of milk, 30,000 eggs, and in addition many thousand bottles of mineral water and spiritus liquors. The health of the passengers is carefully guarded during the voyage. The science of thermodynamics has been brought to us to as great perfection as possible. Not alone is the heating thoroughly up to modern science requirements, but the ventilation as well by means of thermotanks, suction valves, and exhaust fans. All foul air is expelled and fresh current sent through all parts of the ship. There is an electric generating station abaffed the main engine room containing four turbo generators each of 375 kilowatts capacity. There are more than 5,000 electric lights and every room is connected by an electric push bell. There is a telephone exchange through which one can be connected with any department of the vessel. When in harbor, either at Liverpool or New York, the wires are connected to the city central exchange so that the ships can be communicated with either by local or long distance telephone. By means of wireless telegraphy, voyagers can communicate with friends during almost the entire trip and learn the news of the world the same as if they were on land. A bulletin is published daily on board giving news of the leading happenings of the world. There is a perfect fire alarm system on board with fire mains on each side of the ship from which connections are taken to every separate department. There are boxes with hydrant and valve in each room and a system of brake glass fire alarms with a drop indicator box in the chart room and also one in the engine room to notify in the case of any outbreak. The sanitation is all that could be desired. There are flush lavatories on all decks and marble and onyx in which all sanitary contrivances and apparatus of the best design. The vessel is propelled by four screws rotated by turbine engines and the power developed is equal to that of 68,000 horses. Now 68,000 horses placed head to tail in a single line would reach a distance of 90 miles or as far as New York to Philadelphia and if the steeds were hardest 20 of rest there would be no fewer than 3400 rows of powerful horses. Such is the same ship of today but there is no doubt that the thousand foot boat is coming which probably will cross the Atlantic Ocean in less than four days if not in three. But the question is where shall we put her? That is where shall we dock her? To build a thousand foot pier to accommodate her appears like a good answer to this question but the great difficulty is that their United States government regulations restricting the length of piers to 800 feet. Docking space along the shore of New York Harbor is too valuable to permit the ship being birthed parallel to the shore therefore vessels must dock at right angles to the shore. Some provisions must soon be made in the regulations as to dock lengths revised. The thousand footer may be here in a couple of years or so. In the meantime the two 840 footers are already on the stocks at Belfast and are expected to arrive early in 1911. Before they come changes and improvements must be made in the docking and harbor facilities of the port of New York. If higher speed is demanded increased size is essential. Since with even the best result every hundred horsepower added involves in addition to machinery weight of approximately 14 tons and to the area occupied of about 40 square feet. To accomplish this the ship must be as much larger in proportion. The ship designer has to work within circumscribed limits. If he could make his vessel of any depth he might build much larger and there would be theoretically no limit to his speed. 40 knots an hour might be obtained as easily as the present maximum of 26 but in designing his ship he must remember that in the harbors of New York or Liverpool the channels are not much beyond 30 feet in depth. High speed necessitates powerful engines but if the engines are too large there will not be space enough for the coal to feed the furnaces. If the breadth of the ship is increased the speed is diminished while on the other hand if two powerful engines are put in a narrow vessel she will break her back. The proper proportions must be carefully studied as regards length, breadth, depth and weight that the vessel will derive the greatest speed from her engines. End of chapter 6. Chapter 7 of Marvel's of Modern Science This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Louise J Bell Marvel's of Modern Science by Paul Severing Chapter 7 Wonderful Creations in Plant Life Mating Plants Experiments of Burbank What he has accomplished. In California lives a wonderful man. He has succeeded in doing more than making two blades of grass grow where grew but one. Yearly, daily in fact. This wizard of plant life is playing tricks on old mother nature, transforming her vegetable children into different shapes and making them no longer recognizable in their original forms. Like the fairies in Irish mythology. This man steals away the plant babies. But instead of leaving sickly elves in their places. He brings into the world exceedingly healthy or lusty youngsters. Which grow up into a full maturity and develop traits of character superior to the ones they supplant. For instance he took away the ugly thorny insipid cactus and replaced it by a beautiful smooth juicy one. Which is now making the western deserts blossom as the rose. The name of this man is Luther Burbank. Whose fame as a creator of new plants has become worldwide. The basic principle of Burbank's plant magic comes under two heads. Namely breeding and selection. He mates two different species in such a way that they will propagate a type partaking of the natures of both but superior to either in their qualities. In order to affect the best results from mating he is choice in his selection of species. The best is taken and the worst rejected. It is a universal law that the bad can never produce the good. Consequently when good is desired as is universally the case bad must be eliminated. In his method Burbank gives the good a chance to assert itself and at the same time takes away all opportunity from the bad so that the latter cannot thrive but must decay and pass out of being. He takes two plants they may be of the same species but as a general rule he prefers to experiment with those of different species. He perceives that neither one in its present surroundings is putting forth what is naturally expected from it that each is either retrograding in the scale of life or standing still for lack of encouragement to go forward. He knows that back of these plants is a long history of evolutions from primitive beginnings to their present stage just as in the case of man himself. Tis a far cry from the cliff dweller wielding his stone axe and roaming nude through the fields and forests after his prey the wild beast to the lordly creature of today the product of long ages of civilization and culture. Yet as high as the state is to which man has been brought in many cases he is hemmed in and surrounded by circumstances which preclude him from putting forth the best that is in him and showing his full possibilities to the world. The philosopher is often hidden in the plowmen and many a poor laborer toiling in corduroy's and fustion at the docks in the mills or sweeping the streets may have as good a brain as Edison but has not the opportunity to develop it and show its capabilities. The same analogy is applicable to plant life. Under adverse conditions a plant or vegetable cannot put forth its best efforts. In a scrawny impoverished soil and exhausted atmosphere lacking the constituents of nurture the plant will become dwarfed and unproductive whereas on good ground and in good air which have the succulent properties to nourish it the best results may be expected the soil and the air therefore from which are derived the constituents of plant life are indispensably necessary but they are not the primal principles upon which that life depends for its being. The basis the foundation the origin of the life is the seed which germinates in the soil and evolves itself into the plant a dead seed will not germinate a contaminated seed may but the plant it produces will not be a healthy one and it will only be after a long series of transplantings with patience and care that at length a really sound plant will be obtained the same principle holds good in regard to the human plant it is hard to offset an evil ancestry the contamination goes on from generation to generation just as in the case of the notorious juke family which cost new york state hundreds of thousands of dollars in consequence of criminality and idiocy it requires almost a miracle to divert an individual sprung from a corrupt stem into a healthy moral course of living there must be some powerful force brought to bear to make him break the ligatures which bind him to ancestral nature and enable him to come forth on a plane where he will be susceptible to the influence of what is good and noble such can be done and has been accomplished burbank is accomplishing such miracles in the vegetable kingdom in fact he is recreating species as it were and developing them to a full fruition of course as in the case of the conversion of a sinner from his evil instincts much opposition is met and the progress at first is slow but finally the plant becomes fixed in its new ways and starts forward on its new course in life it requires patience to await the development and burbank is a man of infinite patience he has been five 10 15 20 years in producing a desired blossom but he considers himself well rewarded when his object has been obtained thousands of experiments are going on at the same time but in each case years are required to achieve results so slow is the work of selection the rejecting of the seemingly worthless and the eternal choosing of the best specimens to continue the experiments when two plants are united to produce a third no human intelligence can predict just what will be the result of the union there may be no result at all hence it is that burbank does not depend on one experiment at a time if he did the labors of a lifetime would have little to show for their work in breeding lilies he has used as high as 500 000 plants in a single test such an immense quantity gave him a great variety of selection he called and rejected and called and rejected until he made his final selection for the last test sometimes he is very much disappointed in his anticipations for instance he marks out a certain life for a flower and breeds and selects to that end for a time all may go according to his plans but suddenly some new trait develops which knocks those plans all out of gear the new flower may have a longer stem and narrower leaves than either parent while a shorter stem and broader leaves are the desideratum the experimenter is disappointed but not disheartened he casts the flower aside and makes another selection from the same species and again goes ahead until his object is attained it may be asked how two plants are united to procure a third the act is based on the procreative law of nature plant breeding is simply accomplished by sifting the pollen of one plant upon the stigma of another this act pollination resulting in fertilization nature in her own mysterious ways bringing forth the new plant in order to get an idea of the burbank method let us consider some of his most famous experiments for instance that in which by uniting the potato with the tomato he has produced a new variety which has been very aptly named the pomato mr burbank from the beginning of his wonderful career has experimented much with the potato it was this vegetable which first brought the plant wizard into worldwide prominence the burbank potato is known in all lands where the tuber forms an article of food it has been introduced into ireland and promises to be the salvation of that distressed island of which the potato constitutes the staple diet the burbank potato is the heartiest of all varieties and in this respect is well suited for the colder climates of the temperate zone apart from this potato which bears his name mr burbank has produced many other varieties he has blended wild varieties with tame ones getting very satisfactory results mr burbank believes that a little wild blood so to speak is often necessary to give tone and vigor to the tame element which has been long running in the same channels probably it was emerson his favorite author who gave him the cue for this idea emerson pointed out that the city is recruited from the country the city would have died out rotted and exploded long ago wrote the new england sage but that it was reinforced from the fields it is only country that came to town day before yesterday that is city and court today in burbank's greenhouses are mated all kinds of wild and tame varieties of potatoes producing crosses and combinations truly wonderful as regards shape size and color one of the most palatable potatoes he has produced is a magenta color approaching crimson so distributed throughout that when the tuber is cut no matter from what angle it presents concentric geometric figures some having a resemblance to human and animal faces before entering on any experiment to produce a new creation burbank always takes into consideration the practical end of the experiment that is what the value of the result will be as a practical factor in commerce how much it will benefit the race he does not experiment for a pastime or a novelty but for a purpose his object in regard to the potato is to make it a richer better vegetable for a food supply and also to make it more important for other purposes in the commerce of the nations the average potato consists of 75% water and 25% dry matter almost all of which is starch now starch is a very important article from a manufacturing standpoint but only one fourth of the potato is available for manufacturing the other three fourths being water is practically waste matter now if the water could be driven out to a great extent and starchy matter increased it is easy to understand that the potato would be much increased in value as an article of manufacture burbank has not overlooked this fact in his potato experiments he has demonstrated that it is as easy to breed potatoes for a larger amount of starch and he has really developed tubers which contain at least 25% more starch than the normal varieties in other words he has produced potatoes which yield 50% of starch instead of 25% the united states uses about 12 million dollars worth of starch every year chiefly obtained from indian corn and potatoes when the potato is made to yield double the amount of starch as burbank has proved it can yield and more it will be understood what a large part it can be made to play in this important manufacture also for the production of alcohol the potato is gaining a prominent place the potato starch is converted into maltose by the diastase of malt the maltose being easily acted upon by ferment for the actual production of the alcohol therefore an increase in the starch of the potato for this purpose alone is much to be desired of course the chief prominence of the potato will still consist in its adaptability as an article of food burbank does not overlook this he has produced and is producing potatoes with better flavor of larger and uniform size and which give a much greater yield to the area palatability in the end decides the permanence of a food and the burbank productions possess this quality in a high degree burbank labored long and studied every characteristic of the potato before attempting any experiments with the tomato though closely related by family ties the potato and the tomato seemed to have no affinity for each other whatever in many other instances it has also been found that two varieties which from a certain relation might naturally be expected to amalgamate easily have been repellent to each other and refused to unite in his first experiment in trying to cross the potato and tomato burbank produced tomatoes from the seeds of plants pollinated from potato pollen only he next produced what he called aerial potatoes of very peculiar twisted shapes from a potato vine grafted on a ponderosa or large tomato plant then reversing this operation he grafted the same kind of tomato plant upon the same kind of potato plant and produced underground a strange looking potato with marked tomato characteristics he saw he was on the right road to the production of a new variety of vegetable but before experimenting further along this line he crossed two distinct species of tomatoes and obtained a most ornamental plant different from the parent stems about 12 inches high and 15 inches across with large unusual leaves and producing clusters of uniform globular fruit the whole giving a most pleasing and unique appearance the fruit were more palatable than the ordinary tomatoes had better nutritive qualities and were more suitable for preserving and canning very pleased with this result he went back to his experiments with the potato tomato and succeeded in producing the most wonderful and unique fruit in the world one which by a happy combination of the two names he has aptly called the pomato it may be considered as the evolution of a potato seed ball it first appears as a tiny green ball on the potato top and as the season progresses it gradually enlarges and finally develops into a fruit about the size and shape of the ordinary tomato the flesh is white and the marrow which contains but a few tiny white seeds is exceedingly pleasant to the taste possessing a combination of several different fruit flavors though it cannot be identified with any one it may be eaten either raw or cooked after the manner of the common tomato in either case it is most palatable but especially so when cooked it is exceptionally well adapted to preserving purposes the production of such a fruit from a vegetable is one of the crowning triumphs of the california wizard probably it is the most novel of all the wonderful crosses and combinations he has given to the world it would be impossible here to go into detail in regard to some of the other wonders accomplished in the plant world by this modern magician there is only space to merely mention a few more of his successful achievements he has given the improved thornless and spiculous cactus food for man and beast converting it into a beautifier and reclaimer of desert wastes the plum cut which is an amalgamation of the plum and the apricot with a flavor superior to both many kinds of plums some without pits others having the taste of Bartlett pears and still others giving out a fragrance as sweet as the rose several varieties of walnuts one with a shell as thin as paper and which was so easily broken by the birds that Burbank had to reverse his experiment somewhat in order to get a thicker shell another walnut has no tannin in the meat which is the cause of the disagreeable flavor of the ordinary fruit the world-famed Shasta daisy which is a combination of the Japanese daisy the English daisy and the common field daisy and which has a blossom seven inches in diameter a Dahlia deprived of its unpleasant odor and the scent of the Magnolia blossom substituted a gladiolus which blooms around the entire stem like a hyacinth instead of the old way on one side only many kinds of lilies with chalices and petals different from the ordinary and exhaling perfumes as varied as those of oriental gardens a poppy of such dimension that it is from 10 to 12 inches across its brilliant bloom an amorellus bred up from a couple of inches to over a foot in diameter several kinds of fruit trees which withstand frost in bud and in flower a chestnut tree which bears nuts in 18 months from the time of seed planting a white blackberry paradoxical as it may appear a rare and beautiful fruit and as palatable as it is beautiful the primus berry a union of the raspberry and the blackberry another wonderful and delicious berry produced from the california dew berry and the cuffbert raspberry pie plants four feet in diameter bearing every day in the year prunes three four and five times as large as the ordinary and enriched in flavor blackberries without their prickly thorns and hundreds of other combinations and crosses of fruits and flowers too numerous to mention he has improved plums pears apples apricots quinces peaches cherries grapes in short all kinds of fruit which grow in our latitude and many even that have been introduced he has developed hundreds of varieties of flowers improving them in color hardiness and yield thus he has not only added to the food and manufacturing products of the world but he has enriched the aesthetic side in his beautiful flower creations end of chapter seven recording by louise j bell sabbasta pole california chapter eight of marvels of modern science this is a leber vox recording all leber vox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit leber vox.org recording by skia simaru marvels of modern science by paul severing chapter eight latest discoveries in archaeology prehistoric time earliest records discoveries in bible lands american explorations for the earliest civilization and culture we must go to that part of the world which according to the general belief is the cradle of the human race the civilization of the mesopotamian plain is not only the oldest but the first where man settled in great city communities under an orderly government with a developed religion practicing agriculture erecting dwellings and using a syllabified writing all modern civilization had its source there for 6000 years the cuneiform or wedge-shaped writing of the assyrians was the literary script of the whole civilized ancient world from the shores of the Mediterranean to india and even to china for chinese civilization old as it is is based upon that which obtained in mesopotamia in egypt too at an early date was a high form of neolithic civilization 6000 years before christ a white skinned blonde-haired blue-eyed race dwelt there built towns carried on commerce made woven linen cloth tanned leather formed beautiful pottery without the wheel cut stone with the lathe and designed ornaments from ivory and metals these were succeeded by another great race which probably migrated into egypt from arabia among them were warriors and administrators fine mechanics artisans artists and sculptors they left us the pyramids and other magnificent monumental tombs and great masses of architecture and sculptured columns of course they declined and passed away as all things human must but they left behind them evidences to tell of their prestige and power the scientists and geologists of our day are busy unearthing the remains of the ancient peoples of the eastern world who started the waves of civilization both to the orient and the occident vast stores of knowledge are being accumulated and almost every day sees some ancient treasure trove brought to light especially in biblical lands is the explorer busy unearthing the relics of the mighty past and throwing a flood of light upon incidents and scenes long covered by the dust of centuries babelon the mightiest city of ancient times celebrated in the bible and in the earliest human records as the greatest center of sensual splendor and sinful luxury the world has ever seen is at last being explored in the most thorough manner by the german oriental society of which the kaiser is patron babelon rose to its greatest glory under nebuchadnezzar the most famous monarch of the babelonian empire at that period it was the great center of arts learning and science astronomy and astrology being patronized by the babelonian kings the city finally came to a terrible end under belchazar as related in the bible the palace of the empires king has been uncovered and its great piles of masonry laid bare the great hall where the young prophet daniel read the handwriting on the wall can now be seen the palace stood on elevated ground and was of majestic dimensions a winding chariot road led up to it the lower part was of stone and the upper of burned bricks all around on the outside ran artistic sculptures of men hunting animals the doors were massive and of bronze and swung inward between colossal figures of winged bulls from the hall a stairway led to the throne room of the king which was decorated with gold and precious stones and finished in many colors the hall in which the infamous banquet was held was 140 feet by 40 feet for a ceiling it was spanned by the cedars of lebanon which exhaled a sweet perfume at night a myriad lights lent brilliancy to the scene there were over 200 rooms all gorgeously furnished most of them devoted to the inmates of the king's harem the ruins as seen today impress the visitor and excite wonder and admiration the germans have also uncovered the great gate of ishtar at babelon which nebuchadnezzar erected in honor of the goddess of love and war the most renowned of all the mythical deities of the babelonian pantheon it is a double gateway with interior chambers flanked by massive towers and was erected at the end of the sacred road at the northeast corner of the palace its most unique feature consists in the scheme of decoration on its walls which are covered with row upon row of bulls and dragons represented in the brilliant enameled bricks some of these creatures are flat and others raised in relief those in relief are being taken apart to be sent to berlin where they will be again put together for exhibition the freezes on this gate of ishtar are among the finest examples of enameled brick work that have been uncovered and take their place beside the lion freeze from sargon's palace at course abad and the still more famous freeze of arches of king derrius in the paris louvre the german party have already established the claim of herodotus as to the thickness of the walls of the city herodotus estimated them at 200 royal cubits 348 feet high and 50 royal cubits 86 and a half feet thick at places they have been found even thicker so wide were they that on the top of four horse chariot could easily turn the hanging gardens of babelon said to have been built to please ametus the consort of nebuchadnezzar were classed as among the seven wonders of the world terraces were constructed 450 feet square of huge stones which cost millions in that stoneless country these were supported by countless columns the tallest of which were 160 feet high on top of the stones were layers of brick cemented and covered with pitch over which was poured a layer of lead to make all absolutely watertight finally on top of this earth was spread to such a depth that the largest trees had room for their roots the trees were planted in rows forming squares and between them were flower gardens in fact these gardens constituted in eden in the air which has never since been duplicated new discoveries have been recently made concerning the tower of babel the construction of which as described in the book of genesis is one of the most remarkable occurrences of the first stage of the world's history it has been found that the tower was square and not round as represented by all bible illustrators including doré the ruins cover a space of about 50 000 square feet and are about 10 miles from the site of babelon the ruins of the celebrated synagogue of copernium believed to be the very one in which the savior preached have been unearthed and many other biblical sites around the ancient city have been identified copernium was the home of jesus during nearly the whole of his Galilean ministry and the scene of many of his most wonderful miracles the site of copernium is now known as tell hum there are ruins scattered about over a radius of a mile the excavating which revealed the ruins of the synagogue was done under supervision of a german archaeologist named cole this synagogue was composed of white limestone blocks brought from a distance and in this respect different from the others which were built of the local black volcanic rock the carvings unearthed in the ruins are very beautiful and most of them in high relief work representing trailing vines stately palms clusters of dates roses and a canthus various animal designs are also shown and one of the famous seven branch candlesticks which accompanied the ark of the covenant most of the incidents at copernium mentioned in the bible were connected with the synagogue the ruins of which have just been uncovered the centurion who came to plead with jesus about the servant was the man who built the synagogue luke chapter seven verses one through ten in the synagogue jesus healed the man with the unclean spirit mark chapter one verses 21 through 27 in this synagogue the man with the withered hand received health on the Sabbath day matthew chapter 12 verses 10 through 13 gyros whose daughter was raised from the dead was a ruler of the synagogue luke chapter eight verse three and it was in this same synagogue of copernium that jesus preached the discourse on the bread of life john chapter six verses 26 through 59 the hill near copernium where jesus fed the multitude with five loaves and two fishes is also identified the stoning of saint steven and the conversion of saint paul are two great events of the new testament which lend additional interest to the explorations now being carried on at the ancient city of damascus damascus lays claim to being the most ancient city in the world and its appearance sustains the claim unlike jerusalem and many other ancient cities it has never been completely destroyed by a conqueror the assyrian monarch tiglath polizer swept down on it two thousand seven hundred years ago but he did not succeed in wiping it out other cities came into being long after damascus they flourished faded and passed away but damascus still remains much the same as in the early time among the famous places which have been identified in this ancient city is the house of ananias the priest and the place in the wall where paul was let down by a basket is pointed out the scene of the conversion of saint paul is shown and also the street called straight referred to in acts nine two jerusalem birthplace and cradle of christianity offers a vast and interesting field to the archaeologist one of the most remarkable of recent discoveries relates to the building known as david's castle major condor a british engineer in charge of the palestine survey has proved that this building is actually a part of the palace of king herod who ordered the massacre of the innocence in order to encompass the destruction of the infant savior the tomb of her arm is another relic discovered at the village of hunana on the road from saft to tire it recalls the days of david hiram was the king of tire in the time of david the tomb is a limestone structure of extraordinary massiveness unfortunately the mosque of omar stands on the site of solemn's temple and there is no hope of digging there as for the palace of solemn it should be easy to find the foundations for jerusalem has been rebuilt several times upon the ruins of earlier periods and vast ancient remains must be still buried there the work is being pushed vigorously at present and the future should bring to light many interesting relics at last the real site of the crucifixion may be found with many mementos of the saviour and the apostles professor flinders petri the famous english archaeologist has recently explored the syniotic peninsula and has found many relics of the hebrew's passage through the country during the exodus and also many of a still earlier period he found a remarkable number of altars and tombs belonging to a very early form of religion on the mount where moses received the tables of the law is a monastery erected by the emperor justinian 523 ad although the conquering wave of islam has swept over the peninsula leaving it bare and desolate this monastery still survives the only christian landmark not only in syni but in all arabia the original tables of stone on which the commandments were written were placed in the ark of the covenant and taken all through the wilderness to palestine and finally placed in the temple of solemn what became of it when the temple was plundered and destroyed by the babelonians is not known clay tablets have been found at ninava of the creation and the flood as known to the assyrians these tablets formed part of a great epic poem of which nimrod the mighty hunter was the hero explorers are now looking for the palace of nimrod also that of sanakarib the assyrian monarch who besieged jerusalem the latter despoiled the temple of many of its treasures and it is believed that his palace when found may reveal the tables of the law the ark of the covenant the seven branched candlestick and many of the golden vessels used in israeli tish worship ur of the caldees birthplace of abraham father and founder of the hebrou race is a rich field for the archaeologists to plow some tablets have already been discovered but they are only a mere suggestion as to future possibilities it is believed by some eminent investigators that we owe to abraham the early part of the book of genesis describing the creation the tower of babel and the flood and the quest of archaeologists is defined if not the original tablets at least some valuable records which may be buried in this neighborhood excavators connected with the american school at jerusalem are busy at samaria and they believe they have uncovered portions of the great temple of bale which king ahab erected in honor of the wicked deity 890 bc when the remains of this temple are fully uncovered it will be learned just how far the israelites foresook the worship of the true god for that of bale the germans have begun work on the site of jericho once the royal capital of canaan and historic chiefly from the fact that joshua led the israelites up to its walls reported to be impregnable but which fell down at the blast of the trumpet great piles have been unearthed here which it is thought formed apart of the original masonry one excavator believes he has unearthed the ruins of the house of rahab the woman who sheltered joshua's spies another thinks he has discovered the site of the translation of elisha the prophet from whence he was carried up to heaven in a fiery chariot every christian will be interested in learning what is to be found in nazareth where jesus spent his boyhood archaeologists have located the fount of the virgin and the rock from which the infuriated inhabitants attempted to hurl christ in the land of goshen where the israelites in a state of servitude worked for the oppressing pharaoh ramesses the second excavators have found bricks made without straw as mentioned in scripture undoubtedly the work of hebrew slaves also glazed bead necklaces they are looking for the house of amran the father of moses where the great leader was born the site of arbala where alexander the great won his mightiest victory over derrius has been discovered it is a series of mounds on the western bank of the tiger's river between neneva and bagdad all the treasures of derrius were taken and alexander erected a great palace bronze swords cups and pieces of sculpture have been unearthed and it is supposed there are vast stores of other remains awaiting the tool and patience of the excavator the famous sultan saladin took up his residence here in 1184 and doubtless many relics of his royal time will be discovered the remains of the city of pumbaditha have been identified with the immense mound of abnar some 20 miles from babelon on the banks of the ephrates this was the center of jewish scholarship during the babelonian exile one of the great schools in which the talmud was composed was located here the great psalm by the waters of babelon we sat down and wept was also composed on this spot and here too jeremiah and isiah thundered their impassioned eloquence broken tombs and a few inscribed bowls have been brought to light probably the original scrolls of the talmud will be found here several curiously wrought faces and ruins have been also unearthed several monuments bearing inscriptions which are sorely puzzling the archaeologists have been recently unearthed at the site of bogas kenny which was the ancient if not original capital of the mysterious people called the hittites who have been for so long a worry to bible students archaeology has now revealed the secret of this people there is no doubt they were of mongolian origin as the monuments just discovered represent them with slant eyes and pigtails no one as yet has been able to read the inscriptions they were great warriors great builders and influenced the fate of many of the ancient nations in many other places throughout these lands deep students of biblical lore are pushing on the work of excavation and daily adding to our knowledge concerning the peoples and nations in whom posterity must ever take a vital interest a short time ago professor duofeld announced to the world that he had discovered on the island of ithica off the west coast of greece the ruins of the palace of ulysses homers half mythical hero of the odyssey the german archaeologist has traced the different rooms of the palace and is convinced that here is the very place to which the hero returned after his wanderings near it several graves were found from which were exhumed silver amulets curiously wrought necklaces bronze swords and metal ornaments bearing the date 2000 bc which is the date at which investigators lay the siege of troi if the ruins be really those of the palace of ulysses some interesting things may be found to throw a light on the homeric epic as the schoolboys know when ulysses set sail from troi for home adverse winds wafted him to the coast of africa and he beat around in the adjacent seas and visited islands and spent a considerable time meeting many kinds of curious and weird adventures dallying at one time with the lotus eaters at another braving the cyclops the one eyed monsters until he arrived at ithica where he bent his bow and slew the suitors of penelope his harassed wife in north america are mounds earthworks burial sites shell heaps buildings of stone and adobe pictographs sculptured in rocks stone implements objects made of bone pottery and other remains which aroused the enthusiasm of the archaeologist as the dead were usually buried in america investigators try to locate the ancient cemeteries because besides skeletons they usually contain implements pottery and ornaments which were buried with the corpses the most characteristic implement of early man in america was the grooved axe which is not found in any other country stone implements are plentiful everywhere knives aeropoints and perforators of chipped stone are found in all parts of the continent beads and shells and pottery are also found in almost every state the antiquity of man in europe has been determined in a large measure by archaeological remains found in caves occupied by him in different ages that the exploration of caves in north america has so far failed to reveal traces of different degrees of civilization end of chapter eight recording by skia simaru millilani hawaii may 2020 chapter nine of marvels of modern science this is the liprevox recording all liprevox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit liprevox.org recording by avaii in april 2020 marvels of modern science by paul severing chapter nine great tunnels of the world primitive tunneling who's egg tunnel croton aqueduct great alpine tunnels new york subway macadoo tunnels how tunnels are built the art of tunnel construction ranks among the very oldest in the world if not the oldest for almost from the beginning of his advent on the earth man has been tunneling and boring and making holes in the ground even in prehistoric time the ages of which we have neither record nor tradition primitive man scooped out for himself hollows in the sides of hills and mountains as is evidenced by geological formations and by the fossils that have been unearthed the farming of these hollows and holes was no indication of a superior intelligence but merely manifested the instincts of nature in seeking protection from the fury of the elements and safety from hostile forces such as the onslaughts of the wild and terrible beasts that then existed on the earth the cave dwellers were real tunnelers in as much as in construction of their rude dwellings they divided them into several compartments and in most cases chose the base of hills for their operations boring right through from side to side as recent discoveries have verified the ancient egyptians built extensive tunnels for the tombs of their dead as well as for the temples of the living when a king of thebes ascended the throne he immediately gave orders for his tomb to be cut out of the solid rock a separate passage to a gallery led to the tomb along which he was to be born in death to the final resting place some of the tunnels leading to the mausoleums of the ancient egyptian kings were upwards of a thousand feet in length hewn out of the heart solid rock a similar custom prevailed in assyria mesopotamia persia and india the early assyrians built a tunnel under the euphrates river which was 12 feet wide by 15 high the course of the river was diverted until the tunnel was built then the waters were turned into their former channel therefore it was not really a subaqueous tunnel the sinking of tunnels under water was to be one of the triumphs of modern science unquestionably the romans were the greatest engineers of ancient times much of their masonry work has withstood the disintegrating hand of time and is as solid and strong today as when first erected the fire-setting method of tunneling was originated by them and they also developed the familiar principle of prosecuting the work at several points at the same time by means of vertical shafts they heated the rock to be excavated by great fires built against the face of it when a very high temperature was reached they turned streams of cold water on the heated stone with the result that great portions were disintegrated and fell off under the action of the water the romans being good chemists knew the effect of vinegar on lime therefore when they encountered calcerous rock instead of water they used vinegar which very readily split up and disintegrated this kind of obstruction the work of tunneling was very severe on the laborers but the romans did not care for nearly all the workmen were slaves and regarded in no better light than so many cattle one of the most notable tunnels constructed by the old romans was that between Naples and Potswoldy through the porceli-poor hills it was excavated through volcanic Tufa and was 3000 feet long 25 feet wide and of the pointed arch style the longest of the roman tunnels three and a half miles was built to drain Lake Fugino it was driven through calcerous rock and is said to have cost the labor of 30 000 men for 11 years only hand labor was employed by the ancient people in their tunnel work in soft grounds the tools used were picks shovels and scoops but for rock work they had a greater variety the ancient egyptians besides the hammer chisel and wedges had tube drills and saws provided with cutting edges of corandum or other hard gritty material for centuries there was no progress in the art of tunneling on the contrary there was a decline from the earlier construction until late in the 17th century when gunpowder came into use as an explosive in blasting rock the first application of gunpowder was probably at Malpas France 1679 to 1681 in the construction of the tunnel on the line of the long dock canal 510 feet long 22 feet wide and 29 feet high it was not until the beginning of the 19th century that the art of tunnel construction through sand wet ground or under rivers was undertaken so as to come rightly under the head of practical engineering in 1803 a tunnel was built through very soft soil for the San Quentin canal in France timbering or strutting was employed to support the walls and roof of the excavation as fast as the earth was removed and the masonry lining was built closely following it from the experience gained in this tunnel where developed the various systems of soft ground subterranean tunneling in practice at the present day the first tunnel of any extent built in the united states was that known as the auburn tunnel near auburn pennsylvania for the water transportation of coal it was several hundred feet long 22 feet wide and 15 feet high the first railroad tunnel in america was also in pennsylvania on the elegany portage railroad built in 1818 to 1821 it was 901 feet long 25 feet wide and 21 feet high what may be called the epoch making tunnel the construction of which first introduced high explosives and power drills in this country was the hussack in massachusetts commenced in 1854 and after many interruptions brought to completion in 1876 it is a double track tunnel nearly five miles in length it was quickly followed by the commencement of the eerie tunnel through burgen hill near hoboken new jersey this tunnel was commenced in 1855 and finished in 1861 it is 4400 feet long 28 feet wide and 21 feet high other remarkable engineering feats of this kind in america are the croton aqueduct tunnel the hudson river tunnel and the new york subway the great rock tunnels of europe are the four alpine cuts known as mont senes st gotthard the alberg and the simplon the mont senes is probably the most famous because at the time of its construction it was regarded as the greatest engineering achievement of the modern world yet it is only a simple tunnel eight miles long while the simplon is a double tunnel each bore of which is 12 and a quarter miles the chief engineer of the mont senes tunnel was monsieur sommelier the man who devised the first power drill ever used in such work in addition to the power drill the building of this tunnel induced the invention of apparatus to suck up foul air the air compressor the turbine and several other contrivances and appliances in use at the present time great strides in modern tunneling developed the shield and brought metal lining into service the shield was invented and first used by sir m i brunel a london engineer in excavating the tunnel under the river thames began in 1825 and finished in 1841 in 1869 another english engineer peter barlow used an iron lining in connection with the shield in driving the second tunnel under the themes at london from the use of the shield and metal lining has grown the present system of tunneling which is now universally known as the shield system great advancement has been made in the past few years in the nature and composition of explosives as well as in the form of motive power employed in blasting powerful chemical compositions such as nitroglycerin and its compounds such as dynamite etc have supplanted gunpowder and electricity is now almost invariably the firing agent it also serves many other purposes in the work illumination supplying power for hoisting and excavating machinery driving rock drills and operating ventilating fans etc in this field in fact as everywhere else in the mechanical arts the electric current is playing a leading part to the english engineer peter barlow above mentioned must be given the credit of bringing into use the first really serviceable circular shield for soft ground tunneling in 1863 he took out a patent for such a shield with a cylindrical cast iron lining for the completed tunnel of course james henry great head very materially improved the shield so much so indeed that the present system of tunneling by means of circular shields is called the great head not the barlow system great head and barlow entered into a partnership in 1869 they constructed the tunnel under the tower of london 1350 feet in length and seven feet in diameter which penetrated compact clay and was completed within a period of 11 months this was a remarkable record in tunnel building for the time and one for these eminent engineers of worldwide fame from thence forth their system came into vogue in all soft soil and sub aqueous tunneling except for the development in steel apparatus and the introduction of electricity as a motive agent there has not been such a great improvement on the great head shield this one would naturally expect in 30 years the method of excavating a tunnel depends all together on the nature of the obstruction to be removed for the passage in the case of solid rock the work is slow but simple dry hard firm earth is much the same as rock the difficulties of tunneling lie in the soft ground sub aqueous mud silt quicksand or any treacherous soil of a shifting unsteady composition when the rock is to be removed it is customary to begin the work in sections of which there may be seven or eight first one section is excavated then another and so on to completion the order of the sections depends upon the kind of rock and upon the time allotted for the job and several other circumstances known to the engineer if the first section attacked be at the top immediately beneath the arch of the proposed tunnel next to the overlying matter it is called a heading but if the first cutting takes place at the bottom of the rock to form the base of the tunnel it is called a drift driving a heading is the most difficult operation of rock tunneling sometimes a heading is driven a couple of thousand feet ahead of the other sections in soft rock it is often necessary to use timber props as the work proceeds and follow up the excavating by lining roof and sides with brick stone or concrete the rock is dislodged by blasting the holes being drilled with compressed air water force or electricity and as has been said powerful explosives are used nitroglycerin or some nitro compound being the most common many charges can be electrically fired at the same time if the tunnel is to be long shafts are sunken intervals in order to attack the work at several places at once sometimes these shafts are lined and left open when the tunnel is completed for purposes of ventilation in soft ground and sub aqueous soil the shield is the chief apparatus used in tunneling the most up-to-date appliance of this kind was that used in constructing the tunnels connecting new york city with new jersey under the hudson river it consisted of a cylindrical shell of steel of the diameter of the excavation to be made this was provided with a cutting edge of cast steel made up of assembled segments within the shell was arranged a vertical bulkhead provided with a number of doors to permit the passage of workmen tools and explosives the shell extended to the rear of the bulkhead forming what was known as the tail the lining was erected within this tail and consisted of steel plates lined with masonry the whole arrangement was in effect a gigantic circular biscuit cutter which was forced through the earth the tail thus continually enveloped the last constructed portion of this permanent lining the actual excavation took place in advance of the cutting edge the method of accomplishing this varied with conditions at times the material would be rock for a few feet from the bottom overlaid with soft earth in such case the latter would be first excavated and then the roof would be supported by temporary timbers after which the rock portion would be attacked when the workmen had excavated the material in front of the shield it was passed through the heavy steel plate diaphragm in center of the shell out to the rear and the shield was then moved forward so as to bring its front again up to the face of the excavation as the shell was very unwieldy weighing about 80 tons and moreover as the friction or pressure of the surrounding material on its side had to be overcome it was a very difficult matter to move it forward and a great forest had to be expended to do so this forest was exerted by means of hydraulic jacks so devised and placed around the circumference of the diaphragm as to push against a completed steel plate lining of the tunnel there were 16 of these jacks employed with cylinders 8 inches in diameter and they exerted a pressure of from 1000 to 4000 pounds per square inch by such means the shield was pushed ahead as soon as room was made in front for another move the purpose of the shield is to prevent the inrush of water and soft material while excavating is going on the diaphragm of the shield acts as a bulkhead and the openings in it are so devised as to be quickly closed if necessary the extension of the shield in front of the diaphragm is designed to prevent the falling or flowing in of the exposed face of the new excavation the extension of the shell back from the diaphragm is for the purpose of affording opportunity to put in place the finished tunnel lining whatever it may be masonry cast iron cast iron and masonry or steel plates and masonry where the material is saturated with water as is the case in all subaqueous tunneling it is necessary to use compressed air in connection with the shield the intensity of air pressure is determined by the depth of the tunnel below the surface of the water above it the tunnelers work in what are called caissons to which they have access through an airlock in many cases quick transition from the compressed air in the caisson to the open air at the surface results fatally to the workers the caisson disease is popularly called the bends a kind of paralysis which is more or less baffling to medical science some men are able to bear a greater pressure than others it depends on the natural stamina of the worker and his state of health the further down the greater the pressure the normal atmospheric pressure at the surface is about 14 pounds to the square inch men in normal health should be able to stand the pressure of 76 pounds to the square inch and this would call for a depth of 178 feet under water surface which far exceeds any depth worked under compressed air for a long time 100 feet were regarded as a maximum depth and at that depth men were not permitted to work more than an hour in one shift the ordinary subaqueous tunnel pressure is about 45 pounds and this corresponds to a head of 104 feet in working in the Hudson tunnels the pressure was scarcely ever above 33 pounds yet many suffered from the bends what is called a freezing method is now proposed to overcome the water in soft earth tunneling its chief feature is the excavating first of a small central tunnel to be used as a refrigerating chamber or ice box in freezing the surrounding material solid so that it can be dug out or blasted out in chunks the same as rock it is very doubtful however if such a plan is feasible the greatest partly subaqueous tunnels in the world are now to be found in the vicinity of new york the first to be opened to the public is known as the subway and extends from the northern limits of the city in westchester county to brooklyn the oldest however of the new york tunnels counting from its origin is the macadoo tunnel from christopher street in manhattan borough under the Hudson to hoboken this was begun in 1880 and continued at intervals as funds could be obtained until 1890 when the work was abandoned after about 2000 feet had been constructed for a number of years the tunnel remained full of water until it was finally acquired by the Hudson companies who completed and opened it to the public in 1908 another tunnel to the foot of courtland street was constructed by the same concern and opened in 1909 both tunnels consist of parallel but separate tubes the railway tunnels to carry the pennsylvania rr under the Hudson into new york and thence under the east river to long island have been finished and are great triumphs of engineering skill besides making new york the most perfectly equipped city in the world as far as transit is concerned the greatest proposed subaqueous tunnel is that intended to connect england with france under the english channel a distance of 21 miles time and again the british parliament has rejected proposals through fear that such a tunnel would afford a ready means of invasion from a foreign enemy however it is almost sure to be built another projected british tunnel is one which will link island in scotland under the irish sea if this is carried out then indeed the emerald aisle will be one with britain in spite of her unwillingness for such a close association england already possesses a famous subaqueous tunnel in that known as the seven tunnel under the river of that name it is four and a half miles long although it was built largely through rock water gave much trouble in its construction which occupied 13 years from 1873 to 1886 pumps were employed to raise the water through a side heading connecting with a shaft 29 feet in diameter the greatest amount of water raised concurrently was 27 million gallons in 24 hours but the pumps had a capacity of 66 million gallons for the same time the greatest tunnel in europe is the simplon which connects switzerland with italy under the simplon pass in the alps it has two bores 12 and one fourth miles each and at places it is one and one half miles below the surface the saint gothard also connecting switzerland and italy under the lofty peak of the called the saint gothard is nine and one fourth miles in length the third great alpine tunnel the alberg which is six and one half miles long forms a part of the austrian railway between innsbruck and bludens in the tirole and connects westward with the swiss railroads and southward with those of italy two great tunnels at the present time are being constructed in the united states one of these which is piercing the backbone of the rockies is on the atlantic and pacific railway it begins near georgetown will pass under graze peak and come out near deca tour colorado in all a length of 12 miles the other american undertaking is a tunnel under the famous pike's peak in colorado which when completed will be 20 miles long it can clearly be seen that in the way of tunnel engineering uncle sam is not a witt behind his european competitors end of chapter nine chapter 10 of marvels of modern science this is a libravox recording all libravox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit libravox.org recording by n-crant burlington of vermont marvels of modern science by paul severing chapter 10 electricity in the household electrically equipped houses cooking by electricity comforts and conveniences science has now pressed the invisible wizard of electricity into doing almost every household duty from cleaning the windows to cooking the dinner there are many houses now so thoroughly equipped with electricity from top to bottom that one servant is able to do what formerly required the service of several and in some houses servants seem to be needed hardly at all the mistresses doing their own cooking ironing and washing by means of electricity in respect to taking advantage of electricity to perform the duties of the household our friends in europe were ahead of us though america is preeminently the land of electricity the natal home of the science we are waking up however to the domestic utility of this agent and throughout the country at present there are numbers of homes in which electricity is employed to perform almost every task automatically from feeding the baby to the crimping of my lady's hair and her scented bodor there is now no longer any use for chimneys out electrically equipped houses for the fires have been eliminated and all heat and light drawn from the electric street mains a description of one of these houses is most interesting as showing what really can be accomplished by this wonderful source of power before the visitor to such a house reaches the gate or front door his approach is made known by an annunciator in the hall which is connected with a hidden plate in the entrance path which when pressed by the feet of the visitor charges the wire of the annunciator a voice comes through the horn of a phonograph asking him what he wishes and telling him to reply through the telephone which hangs to the side of the door when he is made his wants known if he is welcomed or desired there is a click in the door opens as he enters an electrically operated doormat cleans his shoes and if he is aware of the equipments of the house he can have his clothes brushed by an automatic brush attached to the hat rack in the hall an escalator or endless stairway brings him to the first floor where he is met by the host who conducts him to the den sacred to himself if he wishes a proprandial cigar the host touches the segment of the wall apparently no different in appearance from the surrounding surface and a complete cigar outfit shoots out to within reach of the guest when the gong announces dinner he is conducted to the dining hall where probably the uses to which electricity can be put are better exemplified than in any other part of the house between the room in the kitchen there is a perfect electric understanding the apartments are so arranged that electric dumbwaiter service is operated between the center of the dining table itself and the serving table in the kitchen the ladder is equipped with an electric range provided with electrically heated ovens broilers vegetable cookers saucepans dishes etc sufficient for the preparation of the most elaborate house banquet the chef or cook in charge of the kitchen prepares each dish in its proper oven and has it ready waiting on the electric elevator at the appointed time when the host and his guest or guests or family as the case may be are seated in the dining table the host or whoever presides at the head of the table merely touches a button concealed at the side of the mahogany and the elevator instantly appears through a trap door in the table which is ordinarily closed by two silver covers which look like a tray in this way the dish seemingly miraculously appears right on top of the table when each guest is served it returns to the kitchen by the way it came and a second course is brought to the table in a similar manner and so on until the dinner is fully served fruits and flowers tastefully arranged a door in the center of the dining table and my new electric incandescent lamps of various colors are concealed in the roses and petals and these give a very pretty effect especially at night beneath the table nothing is to be seen but two nickel plated bars which serve to guide the elevators down in the kitchen the cooking is carried on almost mechanically by means of an electric clock controlling the heating circuits to the various utensils the cook knowing just how long each dish will require to be cooked turns on the current at the proper time and then sets the clock to automatically disconnect that utensil when sufficient time so many minutes to the pound has elapsed when this occurs a little electric bell rings calling attention to the fact that the heat has been shut off another kitchen accessory is a rotating table in which are mounted various household machines such as meat choppers cream whippers egg beaters and other apparatus all electrically operated there is also an electric dishwasher and dryer and plate rack manipulator which places the dishes in position when clean and dried the advantages of cooking by electricity are apparent to all who have tested them food cooked in an electric baking oven is much superior than when cooked by any other method because of the better heat regulation and the utter cleanliness there being absolutely no dust whatever as in the case when coal is used the electric oven does not increase the temperature nor does it exhaust the pure air in the room by burning up the oxygen the time required for cooking is about the same as with coal the perfect cleanliness of an electric plate warmer is sufficient to warrant its use it keeps dishes at a uniform temperature and the food does not get scorched and become tough steaks prepared on electric grid irons and broilers are really delicious as they're evenly done throughout and retain all the natural juices of the meat there is no odor of gas or of the fire and portions done to a crisp while others are raw on the inside in toasting there is no danger of the bread burning on one side more than the other or if it's burning on either side and a couple of dozen slices can be done together on an ordinary instrument at the same time the electric disk stove flat on the top like a ball cut in two can be also utilized as a toaster or for heating any kettles or pots or vessels with flat bottoms very appetizing waffles are made with electric waffle irons because the bottom and top irons are uniformly heated so that the irons cook the waffles from both sides at the same time electric potato peeling machines consist of a stationary cylinder opened at the top for the reception of the potatoes and having a revolving disc at the bottom the cylinder has a rough surface or is coated with diamond flint so that when the disc revolves the potatoes are thrown against the sides of the cylinder and the skin is scraped off there is no deep cutting is when peeled by a knife therefore much waste is avoided while the potatoes are being scraped a stream of water plays upon them taking away the skins and thoroughly cleansing the tubers among other electric labor savers connected with the culinary department maybe mentioned floor scrubbers dishwashers coffee grinders meat choppers dough mixers and cutlery polishers all of which give complete satisfaction at a poultry cost and save much time and labor a small motor can drive any of these instruments or several can be attached and run by the same motor the operation of an ordinary snap switch will supply energy to electric water heaters attached to the kitchen boiler or to the faucet the instantaneous water heater also purifies the water by killing the bacteria contained in it the electric tea kettle makes a brew to charm the heart of a connoisseur in fact all cooking done by electricity whether it is frying an egg or the roasting of a steak is superior in every way to the old methods and what accentuates its use is the cleanliness with which it can be performed and it should be taken into consideration that in electric cooking there is no bending over hot stoves and ranges or a stuffy evil smelling smoky atmosphere but on the contrary fresh air cleanliness and coolness which make cooking not the drudgery it has ever been but a real pleasure let us take a glance at the laundry in the electrically equipped house there is a large tub with a ringer attached to it and a simple mechanism by which a small motor can either be connected with the tub or the ringer as required the washing is performed entirely by the motor and in a way prevents the wear and tear associated with the old method of scrubbing and rubbing done at the expense of much elbow grease the motor turns the tub back and forth and in this way the soapy water penetrates the clothes thus removing the dirt without injuring or tearing the fabric in the old way the clothes were moved up and down in the water and torn and worn in the process by the new way it is the water which moves while the clothes remain stationary when the clothes are thoroughly washed the motor is attached to the ringer and they are passed through it they are completely dried by a specially constructed electric fan whatever garments are to be ironed are separated and fed to a steel roll mangle operated by a motor which gives them a beautiful finish the electric flat iron plays also an important part in the laundry as it is clean and never gets too hot nor too cold and there is no rushing back to replenish the heaters one is not obliged to remain in the room with a hot stove and suffer the inconveniences no he is felt at all from the iron as it is all concentrated on the bottom surface it is a regular blessing to the laundress especially in hot weather there is a growing demand in all parts of the country for these electric flat irons electricity plays an important role in the parlor and drawing room the electric fireplace throws out a ruddy glow a perfect imitation of the wide open old-fashioned fireplaces of the days of our grandmothers there are small grooves at certain sections in the flooring over which chairs and couches can be brought to a desired position when the master drops into his favorite chair by the fireplace if he wishes a tune to soothe his jangled nerves there is an electric attachment to the piano and he can adjust it to get the air of his choice without having to ask anyone to play for him in the drawing room an electric fountain may be playing its jets reflecting the prismatic colors of the rainbow as the waters fall an iridescent sparkle among the lights such a fountain is composed of a small electric motor and a centrifugal pump the ladder being placed in the interior of a basin connected directly to the motor shaft the pump receives the water from the basin and conveys it through the pipes and a number of small nozzles thus producing cascades the water falling upon an art glass dome beneath which are small incandescent lamps returns to the basin and that's again to the pump there is no necessity of filling the fountain until the water gets low through evaporation when the lights are not in colored glass the water may be colored and this gives the same effect to produce the play of the fountain and its effects it is only necessary to connect it to any circuit and turn on the switch the dome revolves by means of a jet of water driven against flanges on the underside of the rim of the dome and in this way beautiful and prismatic effects are produced the motor is noiseless in operation in addition to the pretty effect the fountain serves to cool and moisten the air of the room the sleeping chambers are thoroughly equipped not only the rooms may be heated by electricity but the beds themselves an electric pad consisting of a flexible resistance covered with soft felt is connected by a conductor cord to a plug and is used for heating beds or if the occupant is suffering from rheumatism or indigestion or any intestinal pain this pad can be used in the place of the hot water bottle and gives greater satisfaction there is a heat controlling device and the circuit can be turned on or off at will there are many curious devices in the electrically equipped house which could they have been exhibited a generation or so ago would have condemned the owner as a sorcerer and necromancer of the dark ages but which now only place him in the category of the smart ones who are up to date and take advantage of the science and progress of the time end of chapter 10