 Hello. Welcome. Reduplication is a morphological operation of repetition whereby the form of an affix reflects certain phonological characteristics of the bass. Cross-linguistically, it's used in both inflection to convey a grammatical dimension such as number and in derivation to create new words. Furthermore, it's often used when a speaker adopts a tone that's more expressive or figurative than ordinary speech. And it's also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, so its level of linguistic productivity varies. So let's look at reduplication from various angles. Okay. We will proceed as follows. We will first look at the classification of reduplication. We will then see how reduplication can be realized in present-day English and will eventually exemplify reduplication across languages. So let's start with types of reduplication. The most obvious type is referred to as total reduplication. That is, we have an operation where the entire bass form is repeated. Here are two examples of simple doubling from present-day English. Yum-yum and wee-wee. Yes. And yum-yum, we have an interjection that expresses pleasure from eating or the prospect of eating. And wee-wee means the actor, an instance of urinating or the urine itself. Yes. And then we have partial reduplication. This operation occurs if only part of the bass is repeated or the reduplicated part involves some phonological changes. That's right. So we can see that in ding-dong, the sounds of alternate chimes as of two bells and willy-nilly, which means that one likes it or not. But aren't these types different? Yes. There are two types. The ablout type of reduplication changes the stressed vowel of the bass while the rest of the word is repeated, as in ding-dong or mishmash. In contrast to inflectional or derivational ablout operations such as long and length or sit and sit, the ablout type reduplication does not involve any grammatical changes in present-day English. The second type of partial reduplication is a rhyme-motivated operation. Here, the onset consonant changes while the rest of the word is repeated. Thus, we are confronted with a rhyme effect as in willy-nilly or walkie-talkie. But in present-day English, reduplication is not a productive morphological operation and it's thus considered marginal as far as linguistic usage is concerned. It's confined to specific contexts and situations. For example, we find reduplication in occasional borrowings from other languages such as ilang-ilang, which is a Malayan tree. We use reduplication in echoic or otherwise phonetically suggestive words such as tatat, which is also a nice example of anomatopoeia. And sometimes we reduplicate in occasional emphatic repetitions such as in substandard forms as it's a no-no. And in English-based pigeons and creoles, we find forms such as hard-hard, which means very hard. For example, in Jamaican creole. The night we then start to blow hard, hard. Last but not least, there are quite a few reduplications in child language. You may know examples such as bubo or dada. The major motivation for producing such reduplications may be simply the need to play with sounds or to practice them. In other languages, reduplication is far more productively used than in present-day English which is often used as a way of expressing various meanings. The following categories can be identified. Augmentation, that is, increase of quantity as in Indonesian. Intensification, that is, the increase of degree as in midumba or wall-off. Diminuation, the decrease of quantity as in sebuano anak, which means child, and anak anak, which means adopted child. Other languages involve attenuation. The decrease of degree as in German Klein Klein Klein, you know the term is used on the football ground. Or in Tagalog, where da lava means wet and da da lava somewhat wet. So among the world's languages, there's a tendency to use reduplication, mainly to express increase rather than decrease. The operation as such, however, is applied to inflectional as well as derivational processes. So much for reduplication. See you again soon. Bye-bye.