 The Roman conquest of England began almost 2,000 years ago in 43AD under the Roman Emperor Claudius. Prior to this, both Julius Caesar and perhaps Calibula had tried to conquer the island of Britain, but they were largely unsuccessful. Following his second invasion of Britain in 54BC however, Caesar had managed to establish a system where some British tribes of ancient southeastern England paid tribute to Rome, with these arrangements potentially still in place by the time of Claudius's invasion. This system built links between Rome and these tribes, with the elites of these British tribes of southeastern England developing a passion for Roman customs, having a love of wine and fine imported tableware for instance. Furthermore, some of these elites of southeastern England may have grown up in Rome, after being exchanged as children during negotiations with Rome. Despite this, most of Celtic England still remained outside of Roman control in any strict sense, something Claudius sought to change. But why was Rome so intent on conquering ancient England and Britain? Obviously, a great conquest like Britain would look great on Claudius's CV. The initial pretext for the invasion however, was to reinstall the exile British Clank King of Rome, Verica. He had recently been expelled from the lands of the arch rebates which occupied an area around Sussex during a revolt. Britain may also have been seen in the eyes of many Romans as more of an enemy than an ally. During the Roman conquest of Gaul, led by Julius Caesar for instance, the Gauls of modern France, Belgium and other regions had received reinforcements from the Britons. More importantly however, the Roman Empire wanted to control Britain because of its natural resources, as it was home to cattle, vast deposits of tin and iron, whilst the inhabitants of ancient Celtic Britain used gold coins. In 43AD, the invasion began when Roman legions landed in coastal Kent. The legions were comprised of Roman soldiers mainly from Italia, Hispania and Gaul, and they probably departed from Bologna. The English channel was patrolled by a Roman naval fleet known as Classus Britannica, a British fleet. Under the command of the Roman senator in general, Aulis Plotius, the Romans made progress in taking large parts of southeastern England along the way. Rome won important battles including in 43AD, at the Battle of Medway, on the banks of the River Medway, in the modern County of Kent. In a battle that raged for two days, the Roman eagle finally triumphed. The Romans then soon consolidated their position in the southeast, using war elephants in the process, with the living British tribes eventually surrendering and pledging loyalty to Roman rule. The Romans celebrated by establishing their capital in England at Comilodinum, which is modern-day Colchester. The Romans had to overcome many instances of resistance in the early period of their campaign in England, however. A notable rebel against Roman conquest was Caracticus. Caracticus initially fled from Colchester to South Wales to stir up resistance to the invading Romans, going on to resist Roman rule for years. Caracticus was particularly effective when he and his army utilised guerrilla warfare tactics. Impitched battles, however, that organised and disciplined Roman army tended to prevail. After defeat in one such battle, Caracticus fled north to a territory controlled by Queen Cartomangua of the Brigantis tribe. Queen Cartomangua, who was loyal to Rome, captured Caracticus in 51AD and turned him over to the Romans in chains. He was taken to Rome and sentenced to death, but after making an impassioned speech before the Emperor Claudius, his life was spared. He later died in Rome, after consolidating their position in southeast England. The Romans moved west, under the leadership of the Roman general Vespasian, who would later become the Emperor of Rome between 69 and 70AD. Vespasian and his legions overcame all resistance as they moved west, reaching as far west as Exeter in southwest England. Exeter became a major base of Roman operations between 55 and 75AD. It was not all plain sailing for the Romans, however. Resistance to Roman rule continued in areas, with the Druids serving as a core point of Celtic resistance against Roman rule. And, in fact, it was during an attempt to quell the Druids of Anglesame Wales, that the most famous rebellion against Roman rule in England occurred in 61AD under the leadership of Boudicca. Initially, things were very different for Boudicca, when the Romans invaded Britain decades earlier. Boudicca's husband, Prasitagus, who was king of the ancient tribe at the time, allied his kingdom with the Romans. Father Prasitagus allied with the Romans after attempts to resist Roman conquest were defeated, or whether he surrendered without a fight are not quite clear. Regardless, the ancient tribe was an independent ally of the Romans going forward up until his death. In his will, he left half of his kingdom to his daughters, and the other half to the Roman Emperor Nero. When he died, however, his will was ignored and his kingdom was annexed by Rome and his property taken. His wife, Boudicca, was flogged and abused in the streets, and his daughters were raped. Naturally, Boudicca, as a mother and a widow, snapped. Boudicca, who was known as a very tall woman with a fierce gaze, organised others who had been aggrieved by the Romans. She led her insinity tribe, which occupied the region around the Norfolk area of Easter in England, along with other tribes, including the Tunavantes, which occupied the region, corresponding to parts of modern-day Essex and Greater London, and rebellion against Roman rule. It started when the Roman Governor of Britain, Gaius Setonius Paulinus, who was on campaign against a druid stronghold in Monet, modern-day Anglesey and Wales. With Paulinus in his army out of the way, Boudicca seized their opportunity. The Celtic Queen and her army sat Camillodinum, modern-day Colchester, overpowering and surprising the Romans guarding the city. Boudicca quickly moved on to attack Londinium, modern-day London. Paulinus, who had received word of Boudicca's success in Colchester, marched straight for Londinium to head off Boudicca's advance. Paulinus did not have sufficient numbers to defend Londinium, however, and ended up having to evacuate the city, leaving it for the Celts. Boudicca and her army taught Londinium as a demonstration of power and moved on to sack and burn other Roman controlled towns in England. In her campaign, Boudicca and her army killed an estimated 70-80,000 Roman troops, many by torture. Her uprising was so impactful that it apparently even made Nero the Roman Emperor at the time, to consider withdrawing his forces from Britain altogether. Paulinus eventually reorganised his forces, and despite being outnumbered, the Romans defeated Boudicca's army in a decisive battle that suppressed the revolt. The fate of Boudicca herself is debated however. Some sources argue that she killed herself to avoid being captured, whereas others say she died shortly after the battle due to illness. With Boudicca's rebellion suppressed, and much of southeastern and southwestern England under Roman control, Rome looked north. The northern parts of England were finally conquered by Gaius Julius Agricola in around 78 AD. This region was controlled in large part by the Brigantis tribe. The leadership of the Brigantis had changed hands around a decade prior to the Roman conquest, after Queen Cartomangio, who we met previously in the story when she handed over Characticus to the Romans, was forced to flee to the Roman side after a rebellion led by her husband Venetius removed her from power. After conquering the Brigantis, Agricola moved north to tackle Caledonia. By this point, Celtic England was under Roman control. The Roman position in England was fully consolidated after the completion of the Stingate Road in 87 AD. The Stingate was a Roman road that ran across northern England between Carlyle and Cor Bridge, linking two Roman forts that patrolled river crossings. Hadrian's Wall was later built just north of the Stingate, with construction of the wall starting in 122 AD. The Saluras were a powerful Celtic tribe that inhabited the lands of southeast Wales during the time of the Roman invasion of Wales. They were fierce and warlike and resisted Roman conquest. Originally, this Celtic tribe may have had their roots in Spain before settling in Wales. As the Roman historian Tacitus wrote, the swarthly faces of the Saluras, the currently quality in general of their hair, and the position of Spain opposite their shores attest to the passage of Iberians in old days and the occupation by them of these districts. Saluras is a Latin word with a Celtic origin, perhaps from the Celtic root silo, meaning seed. This may suggest that Saluras meant kindred or stock, although some have interpreted the name in a more practical sense, with the potentially meaning rich and green. As opposed to a centralized tribe, the Saluras can perhaps be thought of as more of a confederation of smaller tribes that lived in the area and were bound by similar cultural traits. These traits allowed them to unify in times of crisis. In line with other Celtic groups, the Saluras, base of operations in capital, was a hill fort, thought to be the town of Lan Milin. In the initial period of resistance to Roman conquest, the Saluras were led by Caracticus or Caradoc as they say in Wales, the king of the Trinivantes tribe of the area around Essex in eastern England. Caracticus had fled to Wales to start resistance after some initial defeats against the Romans in England. He became a military leader of the Saluras before moving on to lead another Welsh tribe who opposed Roman conquest. The odd devices tribe of northern Wales, but more on them in a future video. After Caracticus left, the Saluras continued to resist Roman rule, using griller warfare tactics effectively. They were such a nuisance to Rome that the Roman governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula called for the Saluras to be exterminated or transplanted. On one occasion, the Celtic tribe surrendered and attacked a Roman legendary unit that was building Roman forts in their territory. The Romans were only rescued by additional Roman forces, but there was heavy casualties suffered by the Romans. When Ostorius died in 52 AD, the Saluras were far from conquered. The Celtic tribe seemed steadfast in their desire for independence and autonomy. As Tacitus wrote, the Saluras were changed neither by cruelty nor clemency. One practice the Saluras engaged in was taking Roman soldiers as hostages and handing them out amongst various smaller tribal units amongst them. This was done to improve morale and further encourage resistance. The Saluras are finally thought to have been defeated in around 78 AD, after campaigns led by the Roman leader, Sextus Julius Frontinus. Whether the Saluras were defeated or decided to sue for an agreement is not clear. The Romans eventually managed to establish a Roman fortress in Isca, Cale Leon, which is just north of Newport and modern Wales. A Roman amphitheatre is still visible today in Cale Leon. The territory of the Saluras and Wales in general was annexed into the Roman Empire and was under Roman control for centuries. The capital of the Saluras became care went during this period, with Roman walls still present in the village today. Excavations have revealed a Roman forum, an amphitheatre and Roman baths in the village. Despite the Roman influence, the history of the Saluras still lives on today. Yet they were not alone, as two other major groups resisted Roman rule on the battlegrounds of modern day Wales. The first group that we are going to look at are the Druids, the mysterious and fascinating Celtic priesthood that held considerable power in ancient times. During the golden age of Celtic civilisation, the Druids played a religious, legal, ritualistic and educational role. They were also philosophers and were said to have had ancient knowledge about the natural world as well as the gods, for one to have become a Druid. It was not uncommon to spend 20 years in training, with Julius Caesar writing in his time that the Druids were often educated in Britannia. The Druids enjoyed many advantages in Celtic societies, including being exempt from military service and not paying taxes like other citizens did. Furthermore, the Druids tightly guarded the secrets of their order, preferring to speak and memorise their knowledge rather than to write it down. This practice in part explains why very little written documents exist from ancient Celtic societies, which is frustrating from the perspective of studying history. This has meant that a lot of the primary sources from the golden age of the Celts were written by Roman or Greek sources, which are hardly impartial sources, particularly given that Caesar, one of the chief sources for the Celts, wrote about the Celts as he was bloodily conquering the home of Celtic civilisation, known as Gaul. On occasions when the Druids did have to write, they apparently used the Greek alphabet. When the Roman Empire invaded Britannia, Anglesey on the northwest corner of modern-day Wales was a Celtic stronghold and a major home of Druidism in Britannia. Furthermore, Anglesey became a major destination for British migrants who were fleeing from other parts of Britannia due to the Roman invasion, as the Roman historian Tacitus wrote about Anglesey, which the Romans referred to as the island of Monet. It had a powerful population and was a refuge for fugitives. Given this, it was a core target for the Romans, who went on to invade Anglesey twice, during the first Roman invasion of Anglesey in 60 AD, which was led by the Roman general Gaius Setonius Paulinus. The Romans were met and initially startled, even scared by the enigmatic the Druids, as Tacitus wrote about the exchange. On the shore stood the opposing army with its dense array of armed warriors, while between the ranks dashed women in black attire like the Furies, with hair dishevelled waving brands, all around the Druids lifting up their hands to heaven and pouring forth dreadful implications, scared their soldiers by the unfamiliar sight, so that, as if their limbs were paralysed, they stood motionless and exposed to wounds, then urged by their general's appeals and mutual encouragement not to quail before a trope of frenzied women. They bore the standards onwards, smote down all resistance, and wrapped the foe in the flames of his own brands. A force was next set over the conquered, and their groves, devoted to inhumane superstitions, were destroyed. This initial invasion was halted, however, when Boudicca rebelled on the east coast of Britannia, forcing the Roman troops in Anglesey to march straight for Lindenium to head off Boudicca almost two decades later in 77 AD. The second Roman invasion of Anglesey took place under the Roman governor of Britannia, Gainas Julius Agricola. The Romans were successful in this campaign, and Anglesey was brought under Roman control. The other major ancient Welsh group that resisted Roman rule that we are going to focus on, was the northern Welsh tribe known as the Ordovishies, who were active since early on in the Roman invasion of Wales. The Romans had initially invaded Wales for a few reasons. Firstly, Wales was home to mineral deposits, including gold, copper and lead. Secondly, Rome was responding to raids against their allies in other parts of Britannia. An early Roman campaign in Wales came around 48 AD, after a Roman ally in England was attacked by the Celtic tribe of the Dysengle, who inhabited northeast Wales. In response, the Romans attacked the tribe, although we know little of the precise details of this campaign. In the initial period, when Rome invaded Wales, Caracticus, also known as Caradoc, served as a major leader of the rebellion, utilising guerrilla warfare tactics. When the Roman Empire first invaded the lands of modern England, Caracticus, who was the king of the Trinvantes tribe around Essex and the greater London area today, initially fled west to the territory of the Solorys to stir up resistance after defeat in battle. From around 48 AD, the Solorys fiercely resisted Roman conquest. After a few years however, Caracticus moved north to link up with the Ordovishies tribe. He served as a warlord of the Ordovishies for a period and fought the Romans for years. Even decades after Caracticus was captured and sent to Rome in 51 AD, the Ordovishies continued to rebel. As late as 70 AD, the Ordovishies once again rose up and revolt against Roman rule, destroying nearly the whole of a squadron of Allied cavalry quartered in their territory. This provoked a strong Roman response, led by Agricola. As the Roman historian Tacitus wrote, he collected a force of veterans and a small body of exiliaries, then as the Ordovishies would not venture the descent into the plain. He put himself in front of the ranks to inspire all with the same courage against a common danger, and led his troops up a hill. The tribe was all but exterminated. It seems that the Ordovishies at least suffered heavy defeats against Rome, but they may not have been fully conquered. A mosaic map in the Forum in Rome that shows the territory of the Roman Empire does not include the northwest tribal lands of the Ordovishies, indicating that they may not have been fully conquered by the Roman Empire. In general, however, Rome went on to control at least the majority of Wales until around 383 AD, yet they had to overcome fierce and persistent resistance in order to do so. Hibernia, the land of winter as the Roman historian Tacitus wrote, known as Ireland today, is curious in the fact that it was never conquered by the mighty and bloodthirsty Roman Empire. But why was this the case? Although it is true that some Roman writers and commanders did not seem overly bothered about conquering Hibernia, this does not tell the full story. One potential reason why Rome never conquered Ireland was due to Boudicca's revolt against the conquering Roman Empire. The story begins in 60 AD, when a Roman general named Gaius Seutonius Paulinus took 20,000 Roman soldiers and marched on the sacred Welsh island of Monet, known today as Anglesey. Acting at the behest of the mad Roman Emperor Nero, Paulinus sought to obliterate the refuge for fugitives, as Anglesey served as somewhat of a mecca of druidism in ancient Britain. What resulted was a slaughter. The druids apparently met, the invading Romans with chants and prayers, startling the Romans for a second before their commander ordered them to attack. After slaying the druids of Anglesey, Ireland was less than 70 miles from Paulinus, just across the Irish Sea, and the thought surely crossed his mind to continue to push further west. After all, the nature of Roman commanders was to conquer more and more territory for the glory of Rome. That is one key way that Roman generals made a name for themselves. Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul raised his pedigree back in Rome for instance. At the point where Paulinus may have been dreaming of further conquest across the sea, he received word that the Celtic Queen of the British and Scenic tribe had capitalised on his campaign in Wales and revolted against Roman rule. As we would say in Scotland, she had an empty and she made the most of it. Paulinus and his troops immediately returned to Easter in England, around the Norfolk area, to suppress Bidicard's revolt, leaving any thought of Ireland behind them. Twenty years later, a Roman general and governor of Britannia, who had previously been under Paulinus' command, called Julius Agricola, set his sights on Ireland once again during the Roman invasion of Anglesey. He arrogantly remarked that Ireland could be conquered by a single legion and a few auxiliaries. Agricola was set to cross the sea with an exiled Irish prince, according to Tacitus, the son-in-law of Agricola, and there is some evidence that Rome had a small presence on the eastern coast of Ireland for a time. This may have been in the form of a Roman bridgehead on the east coast of Ireland in Druminar, which is just north of Dublin, despite there potentially being a small Roman military presence in Ireland and certainly a commercial presence over the years. Hibernia was never annexed into the Roman Empire, unlike large parts of Britain and Europe. Bidicard's legendary revolt may be part of the reason why. Let me know your thoughts in the comments below on the relationship between Ireland and the Roman Empire. Ancient Rome is one of the most famous civilizations in recorded history. First a republic, then an empire. The power of Rome stretched from western Europe to northern Africa. Despite Rome's power and prestige, however, there is one region of the world that Rome could never conquer, the northern part of what we today call Scotland. To the Romans, this region was known as Caledonia. This was probably an oversimplification on the part of Roman writers and generals, however, as what the Romans called Caledonia was a complex system of different tribes and groups. Unfortunately, we don't know what these people called themselves. Why did the mighty Roman Empire fail to conquer these people, however? Well, initially, the Romans had some success. After sending a survey fleet in 79 AD, the most notable incident in the initial period of the Roman campaign in Caledonia took place in 83 AD at the Battle of Monds Grupius, with this mountain range known as the Grampian Mountains today. We know that the Caledonians raised an army of around 30,000 men to confront a highly trained Roman force of approximately half the size. Despite their inferior numbers, the well trained Roman legions won a decisive victory, with around 10,000 Caledonians thought to have died on this bloody occasion. After victory, the Romans briefly built upon their position by strengthening a series of forts and watch towers along the Gask Ridge. This was a set of Roman defences that cut through Caledonia, starting as far down as Camlin and stretching diagonally up to Cargill, which is just north of Perth. Roman attention soon turned to another part of the Empire, further east, however. In 85 and 86 AD, the Romans suffered defeats against Dacian forces in Transylvania, which is a modern-day Romania. With some Roman troops relocated to the east, and under increasing pressure from local forces, the Romans dropped back south to the modern-day Scottish-English border. And herein lies one of the major reasons why Rome failed to fully conquer and hold ancient Scotland, the ferocity of the native people. Rome had to drop back to the Scottish-English border, because they were under constant pressure wherein Caledonia. The Caledonians are documented to be fierce and brave fighters. The Roman statesman, Daio, described the Caledonians as doubty fighters who were fearsome and dangerous men. Additionally, the Caledonians learned a lesson from the battle of Mons Gropius, that fighting the Romans in a traditional battle was futile. Their strategy shifted, with them engaging more in guerrilla warfare tactics against the occupying Roman force, which proved successful over the coming centuries. In conjunction to the ferocity, the Caledonians may also have proved far too unruly to accept living under the Roman yoke. The ancient inhabitants of northern Scotland would have had their own customs, traditions, basic legal structure, methods of trade, barter, and may even have had their own currency. After all, the Caledonians had managed to raise an army of 30,000 men, which would have required some level of organisation and societal cohesion. Although some Caledonians probably succumbed to the Romans relatively easily, many did not, as rebellion against the occupying Roman force was a common theme for centuries. It is quite clear that the Caledonians posed fierce resistance to the Roman rule. This is exemplified by the fact that the Romans built two walls 100 miles apart to separate themselves from the fierce northern tribes of Caledonia. Firstly, in 122 AD, the Emperor Hadrian instructed his troops to construct a wall that would separate Caledonia from Roman Britannia. This wall is located in the very north of modern day England, just south of the Scottish border. A few decades later, in 140 AD, the Romans built a second wall, further north, to once again protect against Caledonian attacks. Antonin's wall was built between the River Clyde and the River Forth, and frequently came under attack. Even though Antonin's wall is further north, it still indicates that the Romans never had a major foothold in a large part of Caledonia, as the wall was relatively central in relation to the landmass of ancient Scotland. The likelihood is that the Romans never managed to have any significant presence that far north in Caledonia. Furthermore, the Romans had to retreat from Antonin's wall only a few years after it was constructed. Under pressure from the native forces, the Romans were forced to abandon Antonin's wall in around 165 AD. The Romans threw their weapons down wells and buried them in pits, and part of the wall was buried itself, perhaps to help stop these tools and barriers being used by the Caledonians. The Romans retreated to Hadrian's wall, around 100 miles south. Then, in the 3rd century AD, there was a notable Roman push north in subsequent genocide under Emperor Septimius Severus and his sons. In 2007 AD, Severus received a letter from the Roman governor in Britannia, Sinesio, that the Northern tribes of Caledonia were revolting and that Rome was at risk of losing its foothold entirely. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, the natives had proved quite effective at fighting the Romans. The following year, Severus arrived with 50,000 men and 7,000 sailors, the largest Roman force ever to touch down on the British Isles. In 209 and 210 AD, the emperor led the first north of Hadrian's wall to fight two alliances that had formed amongst the native groups a few decades prior. The first alliance consisted of the Caledonians to the north, with the second known as the Matei, who were based around 5th and on either side of Antonin's wall. With 50,000 land troops, however, Severus' massive Roman force ripped through the land, eventually forcing the natives to agree a peace treaty. The peace was short-lived, however. Shortly after the First Rebellion, the people of ancient Scotland revolted again. Severus, who was stationed at York, ordered his men to commit genocide in response. The emperor sent his sons north, with troops under the order of killing everyone, even the unborn, in the womb. The resulting slaughter is thought to have decimated the lowland population for a century. In 211 AD, Severus died and his sons headed straight back to Rome. After the death of Severus, the Romans dropped back to Hadrian's wall once again. In the subsequent decades, the Romans launched numerous campaigns into modern-day Scotland, but never managed to conquer and hold vast lands north of Hadrian's wall. It is also in the 3rd century AD that we see the first reference to the Picts in the historical record. In 297 AD, a Roman writer spoke of the Picts in the Irish, meaning Scots, attacking Hadrian's wall. It is thought that the Picts are the descendants of the Caledonians. However, as the Picti, meaning painted people, was also a name that the Romans gave to the Northern people of modern-day Scotland. The Caledonians and the Picts may have essentially been the same people. Unfortunately, we don't know what these people called themselves. Rome's failed attempt to conquer all of modern-day Scotland came to a conclusive end in 410 AD. The reality is that Rome never managed to conquer Caledonia due to a fusion of various factors. If the Caledonians weren't so fierce and proud of their way of life, the weather wasn't so bad, the geography wasn't so hilly, the potential riches from conquest not so little. And if Rome wasn't engaged in other conflicts and numerous other corners of the Empire, then Rome potentially could have conquered Caledonia or at least progressed further into Caledonian territory. Yet, as it stands, they didn't. Which leaves me to simply say that the Roman Empire, despite its power, wealth and fame, never conquered the people of ancient Scotland. Thanks for watching, please subscribe and hit the bell to turn on notifications. You can also support this work through buymeacoffee.com and Patreon. All the links are in the description below. By supporting this channel on Patreon, you will gain access to exclusive benefits and you will greatly support the growth of this channel. Some of these benefits you will gain, including early access to snippets of my upcoming video scripts, greater voting power to participate in Patreon-only channel-related polls, and your name appearing in the credits of my videos. You can also follow Celtic History Decoded on Instagram, TikTok and Twitter. Finally, please tell your friends and family about this channel. Thanks for watching, more videos are coming soon!