 This is part two of lecture 11 so in the first part of the lecture we talked about the many reasons that we have to help others Still we don't often or don't always decide to actually offer help when a person is in need So what are the determinants of? Deciding basically to help others while this decision to help others is really depending on two factors I mean thinking by now you should know what these two factors are. It's the person in Combination with the situation. So let's first start looking into aspects of the person There are some people that have an altruistic personality and these are people that have a very high Need and desire to help others like Mother Teresa you see over here She really has this very deep desire to selflessly help people that are in need And I think you can also all relate to this that some people just are very helpful as a personality trait way more than others But there's also apart from personality other aspects of a person that Are influential on the decision to help others? Let's zoom into another Factor of a person and that is gender. There's some sort of stereotype that women tend to be more helpful than man That's based on the sort of the stereotypical view that women are more caring more responsible Are more social and therefore are more likely to help others. Is this true? Yes or no? Here is what your intuition is about this. Well, the answer to the question is it depends Man and women can both be very helpful But the the ways in which they offer help so the moments they decide to help really depends on gender roles So we all are pretty much familiar with the gender roles that are associated with the gender that we identify with so if you identify as Female there's this stereotypical belief that we should offer help when a person needs to be cared for for example When there's a baby crying or when somebody falls down or maybe there's an old neighbor that needs groceries Then we are likely to offer help to those people in need Meals also or men can also have this tendency to help others But then more when there's sort of a stereotypical need for men to be Empower or powerful for example carrying bags of a female that is walking by so sort of Demonstrating their strength and it's not to say that we are inherently so but it's just because we are made aware So often of the behaviors that we are supposed to demonstrate So we know that men are supposed to be you know reveal how strong they are and show that and therefore offer help to the weaker humans society I'm laughing because it's ridiculous, but So so they know that there's expected to be showing helpful behavior If other people are in need of them to demonstrate their strength. So gender plays a role Something else that plays a role is a mood. We already talked about mood in the first part of the lecture So the mood that you're temporary in can can influence your decision to help what also is very important is the person that you're offering help to and Basically, there's two types of people if you look at the people that you can offer help to yep You you can help people from your in-group or you can help people from your out-group and within group I refer to the people that are part of your own group the group that you identified you personally identify with This can be your family members It can be students at your own university any group that you feel related to that is part of your personal identity So oftentimes we offer help to in-group members because we want to benefit the group So it's good for for the group's well-being and also we tend to experience more empathy If a person that is part of our group is in need of help So if a family member needs help or someone that you that is part of the group maybe a sports group that you're also part of Then we offer help because of empathic reasons so more altruistic help basically if a person from an out-group Is in need of help that's a person that is not part of your group That is not oftentimes a stranger someone you don't identify with you don't share anything with with then we can still offer help But we are more likely to help this person if it's also out of our self interest So if it benefits us in some sort of way, we are less likely to experience empathy and therefore overall less Less likely to help members from out-group from groups that are not part of us So one other factor that is I think quite interesting is the location that you're at research has showed and also anecdotal evidence that people From rural area. So if you live For example on the countryside are more helpful than people that live in urban area So in big cities and this is something that has been demonstrated quite a lot And there's also quite some discussion on why this is the case This is the case that people from a countryside are just more pleasant are friendlier at the very core have different Personalities than people in cities. Well, that turns out to be completely false So it's not the case that people in cities have Have less positive or pleasant personalities than people in in villages But the most likely explanation is is that if you live in a city There's a lot going on. So you you can be pretty overwhelmed by all the factors the noise all the people in the city You so you can feel pretty overwhelmed by it and you also feel like there are so many people you cannot help everyone So what happens then is that you experience urban overloads and according to urban overload hypothesis We experience more stress in cities and therefore we become less likely to help So also if you move people from a village to a city Then you also see that they become less likely to help than when they were still living in that village So this question of whether people in a village are more helpful than people in cities Was actually also one of the key questions of an episode of a Dutch television program called who do you think you are? It's a popular science television program that I was also part of as as a scientific expert and in this episode There was a comparison made between people from villages and cities and the key question was are people in the village more or less Likely to help others. So you can now take a look to this part of the show Good and then we actually come to the most important question of the day We have some idea that people in a village that they just that they are just the earth people from the big city Yes, just friendly, just interested, they greet each other Yes, that's what we wanted to do. We did that in our experiment. Are the villages more suitable than cities? Are the villages more suitable than cities? Well, how do you know that? What did you think? A list. This is Eva, our lab assistant Eva's heart is healthy, but for the experiment a brace was done and a series of stories about a broken middle-footed band We are going to crush her and it all looked very believable Are you really used to it? No, yes, I jumped on my feet with basketball this week I broke my middle-footed leg with basketball this week The crew members were there to fill in a list of questions about their lifetime I have a list of questions that you can fill in here You can fill in here in the front and back of the name, just around the village or city And these six questions about lifetime The list of questions had nothing to do with this research It was mainly about something else Who are earth people? And earth people split up into two questions Who are they more helpful to Eva and who are they more empathic So who lives the most with her? We started with the helpfulness We had made sure that Eva had a pen that didn't do it well And so our poor Eva had to stand up, grab her crutches and walk to a box with pens She doesn't use pens I'm going to give her a different pen She doesn't do it I'm going to give her a different type of pen Our first meeting was Who asks if Eva could help with picking up the pen? Our villagers were very helpful She doesn't do it I'm going to give her a different pen I'm coming No, no, thanks No, no, thanks Come on, come on No, no, no, come on Do I have to pick it up for you? No, you don't have to But the villagers also didn't let her take it Come on Do I have to pick it up? No, no, no, I already have it Should I give it to Eva? No, no, no, that's fine But much less often From the villagers, only 5 of the 20 help Against over 10 of the villagers A lot less helpful But now let's look at the empathy Let's see who asked Eva herself What happened to her in peace I'm confused Someone jumped on my foot during the training What's that? Someone jumped on my foot during the training Who did that? Someone jumped on my foot during the training How did that happen? Some, especially the men Were afraid to start their own misery I broke my ankle And I ran towards it It was hard and it didn't work I had broken my ankle several times I broke my shoulder I broke my middle foot Really? Yes, fun Yes, I am Really fun Here the role was friendly 10 of the villagers asked for food And only 5 of the villagers So what friendliness means is 1-1 But we had even more trouble At the end of the conversation Eva appeared hopeless With her ultimatum tracker Look, it's my cat, Spik I was a little nervous That Spik has passed away this week He came under the car of the neighbour Sorry that I'm a little more concerned about you The reactions here were still changing Let's start with the very empathetic He was under the car of the neighbour And then he ran out of the car Really? Sorry, it's just my head I understand It's not so bad that he didn't come at the end Yes Well done Thank you It's a pity for the cat For you For me I wish I was here But it's too much I'll tell you If you don't turn it off No, it's just You don't have to turn it off No Did you eat your meal? Well He came under the car of the neighbour Really So stupid I don't have any pets I often have people who have pets That's pretty annoying If you don't like it Then you don't like it Thank you Thank you very much I could have told you Yes Some are going to react on the short side I'm a little stupid But he passed away this week Too bad Okay People There's a woman with meat and blood Who broke her foot And in the same week The neighbour ran over her cat And what do you say? That's for you That's for you That's for you It's not so bad I find it very annoying for you But you can do it yourself That's right Thank you, Ludo I think that was exactly what Eva needed Some found it a very unpleasant story Like Marta Ew No, it was very annoying But you have a lot of pets If your cat is dead And you ask yourself Do you have pets? Okay But it's better than nothing Like with some And I have a lot of trouble with it Yes You can see Robert John Just thinking Yes, they see the story But don't you have a pudding bread? Just for the people Who haven't slept for the past week Eva's cat is still alive We didn't give it up for the experiment So we're listening We did make a mistake For the science Of your empathy Yes Or always empathy Ludo We had made a video We thought Is it chic to paint yourself In the video? That's possible Absolutely We thought That's for you Indeed That's for you That's for you You have to solve it yourself That's for you And you have to work Yes, indeed That's what I mean Okay There was a huge diversity of reactions with the dog cat But with a clear explanation Because of the stethemes Nine of the twenty reacted Very empathically Very empathically And of the villagers Actually only two There were two What did you think? That's hard The rest was a bit complicated Or a bit short We also asked Eva After the experiment She said To be honest Who did you like better for you? Who did you like better for you? Because still The stethemes are better Yes So what do you think of this difference? You have two different things to consider The first part with the pen That was really for help And we know that The villagers are generally more helpful To strangers And also to neighbors than stethemes An important addition That doesn't apply to family and friends Stethemes and villagers are the same So it's not that you never help But you say What criticism to who you help And the second part Was about empathy How relevant are you? The stethemes were better It could also be Because it was about a house animal And we know that House animals in the city They mainly have a social function For the fun And in villages House animals Often also have a practical use For example to keep a terrain Or to travel unharmed So it may be that The villagers Look at such a dead cat More as if it's broken Or so So that would also explain Why you have been more influential Okay So here we already saw That the situation that you're in And specifically the area where you're living Has an effect on your decision to help And we are now slowly moving From the person to the situation So we'll now start exploring Situational factors and pressures To help others yes or no And in order to clarify this I will start by explaining I think a very fun and clever study That was conducted on Students of a seminary So basically these are students That want to become a priest And these were students from Princeton University And they participated in a study On religious education And you have to keep in mind That this was on purpose This group of students This group of participants Because all these students Had a very high motivation To help others Students from seminary That want to become a priest Of course they have a very strong attitude That they are supposed to be helping others Is of course core also of their religion So at the very basis They were very helpful individuals With more altruistic personalities So these people all took place In this experiment And this experiment began in one building And they filled out several questionnaires And then ended in a second building Where they had to walk to So at the end of the first part Of the experiment The students were told Can you now please go to the second part Of the experiment That's in a different building And there were three different conditions In the first condition The students were told That they were ahead of schedule So they had plenty of time The second condition They were told they are right on schedule So they don't have to hurry But also don't be too slow And the final condition They were told You're actually a little bit behind on schedule So please hurry to go To this second part of the experiment And then what the researchers were Actually interested in Is what students would do When moving from one building to the next Because in the meantime They would come across a person That was definitely in need of help So the question was Will these students of seminary Decide to help the person They come across on their way From one building to the next building And will this be dependent On situational factors In this case time pressure Here you see the results And it's an overwhelming response In which you see that people Are definitely influenced by Pressures of time So the students that were ahead of schedule The majority of these students Decided to start helping The person that they came across While the people that were told That they were on schedule Already had a lower tendency A lower likelihood of starting To help the person they came across And if they were told That they were behind on schedule They basically stopped offering help To a person in need that they came across And I think this is a very interesting study Because it shows that we are all Basically sort of victims Of the situation we find ourselves in So even if you have a very strong Convention that you should help others The moment you start feeling pressure Or you're in a certain situation In which you feel like I'm not in the situation I don't have the possibility to offer help We can actually stop showing This helpful behavior And this study was later replicated With a group of participants That were not from seminary Sort of a more random part of the population And there were two conditions In one group of the participants In this first part of the experiment They read a story on the Good Samaritan And this is basically a story About how important it is To offer help to others in need So basically really sort of Being primed with this idea of helping That helping is very important The second part of the people Read a story on job efficiency So how you can get the job done As quickly as possible Then again they had to move to a second building These three conditions with time pressure Yes or no, here you see the results And basically what is interesting Is the yellow bars replicate Nicely what we also find with the students From seminary, like the priest students So here you see if you're primed With being helpful You see that you will help But only if you feel like You have time to help So if you're ahead of schedule or on schedule You're pretty likely to offer help The moment you start feeling pressure Time pressure, you stop offering help But if you read a story on job efficiency It doesn't matter how much time you have You basically don't help It's also something to keep in mind That the way you educate yourself And what you're reading and what you're learning Is also really impacting your behavior So if you are following a study In which some key attributes Like helping behavior are part of your curriculum Then you're more likely to start offering help Than if you are always reading stories On how you can be as efficient as possible Okay so let me now go to a story In which I think one of the Core problems with helping behavior Becomes very clear This is a very famous story Of Catherine Genovese Or Kitty Genovese She was a young woman Living in New York City So an urban area In 1964 And this was a very sad tale Of Kitty Genovese Because she came home in the middle of the night At 2.30 a.m. And she was attacked by a man with a knife She started screaming and shouting She lives in a big apartment building A lot of people were there Or at least in the building She started shouting for help The lights went on and someone also shouted Leave her alone So clearly having heard the circumstances And being aware that there was a person in need Then the man disappeared The man with the knife disappeared The lights in the building went off Before Kitty could enter the building She started shouting again for help Lights in the building went back on But the man killed her And only after quite a while More than one hour The first call to the police was made And in the first When this first appeared in the news It was of course very shocking That a young girl was murdered Unfortunately this is not something That is very remarkable In a big city like New York But what was remarkable about this story Was that a lot of people actually Heard what was going on According to the first Newspaper articles Around 38 to 40 people That actually heard that this was going on That this was happening They were in their building And basically did nothing Later on this story Seemed to be a bit off So later reports actually Showed that this was not entirely true That a lot of neighbors actually didn't hear What was going on But still this story sparked The interest of a lot of social psychologists Into why we don't offer Help when help is clearly needed And it sparked a lot of research On what is now called the bystander effect And the bystander effect Basically means that we oftentimes Don't offer help If we feel like a lot of other people Are present as well and could as well Offer help I think very illustrative Video clip to show you Which will see what this bystander effect Look like So take a look It's less likely to receive assistance When surrounded by a group Rather than a single bystander When people are in a crowd It's easier to pass the buck It's what psychologists call the diffusion Of responsibility Liverpool Street Station In London A busy thoroughfare for commuters Unknown To these passersby Peter is an actor As part of an experiment With the bystander apathy He's pretending to be ill Help Help How long before he gets help Please Help Help Please help Helping would be inconvenient Or even risky He lies there for more than 20 minutes And no one raises an eyebrow Please somebody help me I've been watching situations like this Where people are obviously suffering And no one's actually helping them But what we have here is two conflicting rules One is the rule that we ought to help And the other is the rule that we ought to do That everybody else is doing And here you have a group of Effectively a group of strangers Who are exerting the pressure Not to intervene, not to help And it's very difficult to rebel Ruth, another actor, takes Peter's place How long before she receives help Four minutes later And 34 people have passed Without stopping People don't really want to know They just haven't got the time They just don't want to get involved Unwittingly, these strangers have silently Formed a temporary group With a rule, don't get involved They're afraid to stand out from the crowd And won't take action if no one else does This woman has Clearly spotted Ruth But she conforms to the rule There's nothing Watch what happens, though When someone else helps Yes, thank you She suddenly finds herself In a different group With a new rule to help Shut up First I thought she was dead Then I saw Chep see She was breathing or not And I looked around and I couldn't believe That no one had noticed her Because there was a bloat that sat there This time Peter's dressed As a respectable gentleman Now that his dress is in keeping With those around him How long before he's rescued Six seconds She even calls him Sir And suddenly everyone's a good Samaritan Do you suffer from epilepsy? No Because he's part of the right group Everyone wants to help I would just hate to be in his position Of feeling ill Because he helped in a walking path So I just like to check that he was okay And I thought well it's wet So he must really be able to ruin his suit anyway So an important question Is of course why does this bystander Effect occur? Why don't we offer help when help is really needed And we are surrounded by other people That are not offering help as well So there's two key explanations The first one is diffusion of responsibility That means that if there's a lot Of other people present The responsibility to help is diffused Among a lot of people So you feel like if there's only one person At the scene This person is responsible to offer help There's no one else that could offer help Well if there's a lot of people there You feel like why should I be the one Offering help There's so many other people that could help as well So you don't feel responsible anymore For to offer help And you start basically just looking at other people And think to yourself well You have to help this responsibility is not mine The second reason Is something that we already talked about It's called pluralistic ignorance And this is basically the experience That you're trying to read the minds Of all the other people and you think to yourself I'm not really sure what to do What are the rules here Should I offer help yes or no And you start looking at other people's faces And you think to yourself well probably everybody knows What's going on there's probably nothing wrong here I can just go on with my own business And I'm probably the only one that's a bit upset by this And again We talked about this before This is just such a big thinking error Thinking that other people have other thoughts Than you and are not disturbed by something And this is also why Oftentimes in these situations And that's also what we talked about In the smoke experiment When we talked about conformity That it's so important to keep thinking for yourself And if you are brave enough To interfere you will likely see That a lot of people start helping you as well So you won't end up being alone Offering help so the moment that one person Decides to help then more people will follow Please keep this in mind For the future So the bystander effect Again shows that under ambiguous Circumstances when we don't really know what's going on People search for cues On how to behave And this is also very clear in the following study Which I think is a very smart study as well In which there were two actors On the street A man and a woman and the man attacked the woman It was not a real attack it was fake Two actors and the woman Responded in two different ways The first response was that she started shouting And saying what are you doing I don't know who you are please go away And the second one was I don't know why I ever married you Clearly sort of communicating that This was a person that she does not only know But that is actually her husband And here the interesting Question was what do bystanders decide to do Do they offer help yes or no And you see a whooping effect Of this response of the female If she communicated that This was a stranger attacking her The majority of the bystanders Actually started to offer help While if she communicated That this was her husband Then people stopped interfering Because they felt like there's also a norm for privacy I don't want to get involved I don't know what's going on here So here you see that also a victim Has quite some power In this situation The response really matters Which type of reactions You will get from bystanders So by now you've seen That there's actually a lot of examples That people often times don't offer help When help is really needed So what do we need to offer help There's several steps that we need to take First of all of course You have to notice the event Going on you have to look up from your phone And actually see that something is up Something is wrong Then you have to interpret the event as an emergency You have to see okay something is wrong And this is an emergency this is not going well Then you have to assume responsibility You have to feel responsible For taking action And then you also the next step Is that you have to know how to help You have to actually feel like I know What I should be doing And then finally you have to make the decision With each of these steps There's a likelihood that people do not help And that's why helping is actually Not as likely as we would assume Based on all the motives that people have To help so we have to move Through all these different steps In order to finally Make a decision to help And this is also key information for you Both when you're in a situation When you see that something is going on That a person is in need That you have to be very aware Of all these steps And that sometimes you also have to skip some steps And you just have to be bold enough To interfere and to help others It's also crucial information If you ever find yourself In need of help yourself And of course I hope this never happens to you But if it does I just want to give you some key advice What you can do if you are in distress yourself Or maybe you're actually in danger yourself There's a lot of people there But nobody's helping you But what is very important first of all Is give people the feeling of responsibility So if there's a lot of people there Don't simply scream for help But say something like You men in the red coats please help me Then you address a certain individual And you make this person responsible For helping you What is also helpful is making yourself known And saying something about what is going on In a situation So that's what we saw with a woman being attacked And saying I don't know who this person is I'm a student, I live there and there Please help me I don't know this person, this person is attacking me So make clear Start communicating with the people around you And be very clear in what is going on And also say what you need So make a concrete action plan For the bystanders In order for them to skip these steps So you want them to feel responsible And also know what to do So you can tell them basically Person in the red coats please help me You can tell 112 I'm in need of help I'm a student Start screaming, start giving out information Of course I hope you never need this But if you do, you now know what to do To increase the chances that you will be Helped if you really need it So this is the end of this lecture Thank you