 As we saw in the second module, air pollution has a harmful impact on the environment and on human health. In this module, we will delve into air pollution policies from formulation, implementation, to their impact. To explore this, you begin by the role of air pollution policies to help tackle air pollution. After that, you will look at multiple actors that are involved in policymaking and implementation. Then, the module will zoom into policies affected people left behind people. You will discuss types of policies that can overlook dimensions of vulnerability. The module will also discuss why an inclusive and equitable approach to formulating and implementing policies is necessary. In the first section, let's look at the role of air pollution policies and how they help fight air pollution. Air pollution is a negative externality of economic activities such as driving an industrial manufacturing, power generation, or driving a vehicle. Clean air is a shared common resource. Air pollution means less of that clean air is available with negative consequences such as ill health and contributions to climate change. In order for the cost of air pollution to be internalized by the emitter of pollutants, regulations such as the polluter pays principle can be applied, such as by requiring the polluter to clean up the affected area or cover the health cost of those affected. Other regulations can be used to cap the polluting activity such as by mandating certain standards in engines or requiring factories to install scrubbers on their chimneys. In certain cases, the polluting activity is caused by the state, such as through government energy policies that favor fossil fuels. Thus, regulations are also needed to ensure the public health burden can be covered. Regulations can also be used to minimize exposure to air pollution. For example, for workers working in a polluted environment, protective equipment should be mandated. USA Clean Air Act Peer Reviewed Study from 2011 by the Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, found that since 1970, the act has avoided more than 230,000 premature deaths and 135,000 hospital admissions. It has also improved worker productivity, which contributes to a stronger economy and kept kids healthy and in school. These figures do not include the health benefits of reducing air pollutants other than fine particles and ozone, or the environmental benefits of reducing air pollution. Policies relating to air pollution can take different forms. Apart from three types of policies in this diagram, there is another form of indirect policies that are relevant to certain groups of workers are those that affect how people use public spaces in polluted areas. For example, whether there are policies promoting cycling or policies regulating whether vendors can use public footpaths for their stalls, this will affect their exposure to traffic pollution. Many policies to combat climate change have clean air as a co-benefit of action. These are examples of measures that seek to limit the emissions of various pollutants or to limit exposure of populations. With regards to national ambient air quality standards, three countries do not have any standards in place, Myanmar, Cambodia and Brunei. No country has set the annual mean PM 2.5 standard to their WHO guideline level of 5 micrograms per cubic meter. Singapore is the closest at 12 parts per million, while the remaining countries are variously at WHO interim target 1-3. In China, the target varies between urban and rural areas. This section will cover various stakeholders who are involved in decision-making process and implementation and how they influence each other. The process of policymaking is generally seen as one led by the government. However, the process can also be driven by external actors such as the private sector or civil society. In order for policymaking to be transparent and fair, it should involve stakeholders from all sectors to ensure that the consequences are fairly borne. It should also be an integrated process. For example, it should not solely focus on an environmental issue but also on workers' health and gender aspects. If policymaking is driven by private sector and profit-making enterprises, for instance, through lobbying, there is a risk that the policies will be weakened in order to enable profit maximization. If policymaking is driven by a single arm of government and stakeholders, such as industry or environment, and is reactive rather than proactive, there is a chance that it could have unintended consequences, for example, on labor or health. It could also result in action being very siloed, making cooperation between departments difficult and, therefore, hampering enforcement. To ensure inclusion in the process of policymaking, there should be public consultations, for example, through information sessions to get feedback from the general public. Consultations with representative groups such as labor unions, women's networks are recommended. In addition, the transparency about donations to government and for what purpose is necessary. This section will zoom into those who are affected by the implementation of policies and those who are left behind. It will also discuss why an inclusive and equitable approach to formulating and implementing policies is necessary. Measures to address air pollution incur costs, such as to install appropriate equipment. However, the costs of inaction may end up higher in terms of impacts on the labor force and productivity. For example, with the U.S. Clean Air Act, according to 2005 data from U.S. manufacturers, their total pollution abatement spending represented less than 1% of the $4.74 trillion value of the goods they shipped. Technocentric solutions to air pollution overlook dimensions of vulnerability in the world of work, such as workers' differentiated exposure to air pollution, lack of access to health care and social and worker protection services, framing of air pollution under climate change mitigation and energy transition discourse warrants technocratic interventions. Policies to address air pollution as source can have inequitable consequences, such as diesel fuel jeepneys in the Philippines. A study found diesel jeepneys responsible for 15% of PM2.5 in Manila. The government planned to face out jeepneys in Manila and replace them with vans, but the cost of running these are higher and therefore would have to pass on to commuters with higher fares. The burden is thus predominantly on the poor. Policies to mitigate exposure can have inequitable consequences, such as school closures during pollution peaks put the caring burden on mainly mothers. Who is left out? One, informal workers who expose to various pollution sources are often overlooked because existing labor protection policies target industrial and waste workers. Two, access to social security through employment compels informal workers to shoulder the burden of medical care. As mentioned in the first module about gender and intersectional considerations play out in air pollution exposure in Vietnam's craft villages, we are now looking at how the existing policies and regulations are implemented and their impacts on different types of workers in the craft villages. To ensure that policies to address air pollution can support workers we need to consider. Firstly, penalties for polluters. For example, polluters should compensate affected workers and residents who are working or living near pollution sources. Labor protection policies need to include informal workers such as those who are working in the agricultural sector, the construction sector and street food vendors. The public space policy framework should promote the principles of social inclusion, democratic process and equal rights to a city in the governance of urban space. Apart from street vendors, other informal worker groups such as motorbike, taxi drivers or construction workers should be recognized in public space policies. From the SEI scoping report, we found that existing air pollution policies are still problematic. For instance, compensation for occupational diseases caused by air pollution is not always guaranteed. Despite acknowledging health risks of air pollution exposure in occupational safety and health policies, most countries focus on protective and regulatory measures as well as penalties for factories' industries when they breach regulations without addressing compensation. Labor protection policies overlook informal workers exposed to various pollution sources. Out of 29 policies related to occupational safety and health, eight policies apply to the industry and factory sector. Four policies to construction, one to agriculture and one to the mining sector. The access approach in public space policies does not effectively address causes of air pollution. Neither does it recognize exposure and impacts of air pollution on informal sector work. By framing public space simply as a physical location in its function, public space policies are unable to address air quality and its causes and are also oblivious to human physical and emotional experiences associated with those spaces. Overall, there is a lack of legal mechanisms to protect informal workers against sources or impacts of air pollution, particularly when they do not or are unable to register for social security schemes. As mentioned, there are many countries in Southeast Asia lacking law and regulations that can deal with clean air issues in particular. This slide will show you some examples of the role of civil society in pushing for action on air pollution. How can we ensure the enforcement? Firstly, inclusivity and participation in monitoring such as citizen science should be encouraged. Secondly, relevant agencies should propose measurable targets and KPIs. The third way is to increase transparency such as pollution registries. Last but not least, data must be collected systematically. Relevant agencies should monitor pollution levels and check progress against targets. Here are some key messages that you've learned from this module. Thank you for attending.