 Assalamu alaikum viewers, welcome to virtual university, we are going to look at ways of organizing texts again. In the last two lessons, we examined ways of organizing long texts such as essays and we looked in detail at four types of linear descriptions, linear organization. The first was chronological writing which is writing about events in time. The second was describing processes in linear sequence and third was describing a cyclic process and the fourth was how to show cause and effect relationships. Now in today's lesson, we are going to consider two more ways of organizing texts and these are spatial relationships, how to show spatial relationships and second classification. Now what are spatial relationships? We shall look at some of the conventions that are used in the description of spatial relationships and you will be provided practice in writing spatial descriptions. The word spatial means dealing with happening or existing in space. While writing, very often we have to describe the location of a place or how a place is laid out or how a set of things or objects are connected. Now you shall look at some ways of describing things spatially. There is a passage for you, read it and note the expressions which tell the reader where the place is. The title is Shiraz centre. Shiraz centre is a complex mixture of high and low buildings on the edge of Shadara and the adjoining locality of Gujranwala just to the northeast of Lahore. Although the site itself was industrial wasteland, it is in the heart of a residential district. Along one side of it runs a rail track but in every other direction it is surrounded by bungalows and double-storey apartment flats. Both Shadara and Gujranwala are fairly prosperous areas but Gujranwala in particular has undergone extensive industrial development. Now in this passage that you looked at, some of the expressions in the text tell you what various places are over and the expression Shiraz centre is a mixture of high and low complex of buildings. This in itself tells you what is Shiraz centre. There are other expressions that tell you where various places are or were. Example you have this sentence over there, Shiraz centre building or on the edge of Shadara and the adjoining locality of Gujranwala. Now that expression is related to place while the earlier one was about what Shiraz centre is. It tells you it was a mixture of high and low buildings. Right? Now there are basically two ways of organising a description of a place. One way is to describe the place as if it was being seen from the air. What is called a bird's eye view. The other is to describe it from the point of view of a pedestrian or of a walk through the place which is known as a pedestrian's point of view, the pedestrian's view. Now this description may be detailed as you would have in a novel or it could be general or it could be very technical as for example when a botanist is describing the petals of a plant. The description may be detailed as in a novel or general or it can be very technical as when a botanist is describing the petals of a flower or an entomologist is describing the body of an insect. In academic writing it is usual to describe a place using the bird's eye view technique. Such a technique is to be found in geographical descriptions and may or may not be accompanied by a photograph or a map but the writing itself is so detailed that one can visualise the place itself. The pedestrian's view this technique is used to emphasise the human aspect of a description and that is why it is adopted by novelists and other story writers. Now when you are writing special descriptions you use grammar in a special way. The most important information in a sentence usually appears at the beginning. This information tells us what the sentence is about. Example if you have this sentence Afghanistan is a landlocked country. Now the sentence seems to be about Afghanistan. In this case Afghanistan is also the subject of the sentence. However if you had this sentence to the east lies Pakistan. Now to the east is not the subject of the sentence but it is very important information as it locates the position of Afghanistan in terms of some reference point which we already know. Now in this sentence the organising principle is the points of the compass. You have Afghanistan in the middle to the north to the west to the east. And your organising principle is you organise according to the points of the compass. Now for practice sake look at the following texts. You will see them on your screen, read them and decide for yourself which one is easier to understand. A. I live in Quetta. The capital of Balochistan is Quetta. A part of Pakistan is Balochistan. That is text A. Now look at text B. I live in Quetta. It is the capital of Balochistan. Balochistan is part of Pakistan. Of the two texts which was easier to understand. Definitely text B. Text B is easier to understand because the writer uses the beginning of each sentence to lead into the next, guiding the reader through the text in a logical way. From I to Quetta, from Quetta to it which stands for Quetta. And from Quetta to Balochistan. And from Balochistan to Pakistan. Now in that text the organising principle or rule is from part to whole. In special descriptions you will find that logical expressions often appear at the beginning of sentences in the text. And you have phrases like beside the canal, further north, along the track. Now you shall have some practice. Look at this spatial description of Lahore and underline or just think, decide in your mind the locational expressions that are used to guide the reader through the description. This is the description of Lahore, Lahore, the old and modern city. Notice all the expressions. The hub of the old city of Lahore is the spacious Minare Pakistan ground in what used to be called Minto Park. The place where the historic Lahore resolution demanding the creation of Pakistan was made in 1940. Here some of the city's main traffic arteries meet. To the south west of the park are the old Mughal buildings. The Badshahi Mosque built by Emperor Aurangzeb. The old fort dating back to Emperor Akbar, the first Mughal ruler. As well as the famous De Montmorency College of Dentistry. Now all these are to the south west of the park. To the north east is the depleted River Ravi. To the north west of the park is the tomb of Ali Hajweri, popularly known as Data Sahib, the patron saint of Lahore. Just beyond Data Sahib are located the district and session courts leading on to the main road of Lahore, the Maal. It is lined by important buildings like the old Punjab University, the National College of Arts, the Lahore Museum as well as hotels. The goods sold in the shops here are marked with fixed prices which cannot be reduced by bar gaining as in the shops in the old world city. Now let us look at that passage again and see which locational expressions have been used to guide the reader through the description. In the first part we have the word the hub, the hub of the old city, right? And then names of various places are given you. The hub means the centre, alright? And we are told that here some of the city's main traffic arteries meet. Then the next locational expression is south west, south west of the park and again after giving you the locational expression south west a number of buildings old and modern are given. The names are given. Then you have the expression to the north east. Again it is the point of the compass north east of the river Ravi. Then you move to the north west of the park and again certain sites, names of certain buildings, of certain sites are given you. And then you move on and you are told about the main road, the main road of Lahore and again buildings, names of buildings are given you. Now notice it is south west, north east, north west. These are all points of the compass and these are locational expressions that have been used to guide the reader through the description of the passage. Now descriptions of spatial locations are normally organized according to conventional ways of looking at scenes and the most common are from general to particular. You move from the general to a particular point. You move from the whole to the particular or you move from the large to small. You move from the outside to the inside or you can start a description from the top go to the bottom. If you are describing something that is you know length wise you begin from the top and you end up if you are describing a building say or you begin from the left and you move to the right or you begin from the right and go on to left. Now these are normal conventional ways of looking at scenes and in your writing if you want to describe something choose any one of these conventional ways and write accordingly. It will give an organization a pattern to your writing. The main point is that you must be consistent whichever convention you choose whichever method or pattern you choose for describing a place be consistent and use it throughout so that the reader your reader is not confused. Now that was the first part of writing. In the first part of the lesson we talked about writing spatial descriptions. You can begin from the top go down you can begin from the left go down to the right you can begin from the general and come to the particular you can move from the particular to the general. Now we shall now consider classification that is also a very common way especially for scientists people dealing with science disciplines science subjects science topics they have to describe things and it is a very common way of writing. In classification you will be introduced to ways of classifying things how you classify things and you will be introduced how to relate classification to conventions of writing and then you will have some practice in writing text which are based on classification. One of the easiest ways to organize things is to look for relationships among objects or ideas and arrange them according to their similarities and differences. You will now look at a set of words and try to put them into groups. In the first set you have four words anger love fear emotion envy and you notice that they are all words dealing with emotions anger love fear envy are all different emotions. So the main word over there is emotion and under emotion you have anger love fear envy be you have a number of words over there table menu waiter restaurant cash register. Now notice that they are all dealing with the general term is restaurant and all the other words come under the word restaurant because it is in a restaurant that you will find a table and a menu and a waiter and a cash register in the same way look at number C and the words are greetings a wave hello hi salam these are all words that come under greetings in the same way look at D number D and the words over there are sleep dream manager intelligent happy teacher a number of words how would you categorize them sleep and dream go together because you dream only when you sleep of course you would say that you can also dream when you are awake but that would be a day dream and then you've got the word manager and manager and teacher could be put together why because they are different jobs different professions and intelligent and happy can be put together because they are characteristics now you will have noticed that data can be classified in several ways in a you classified from the general to the specific the general was the general term was emotions and you went down to specific emotions in B you categorize according to commonality sleep and dream go together and manager and teacher are both professions they go together while intelligent and happy are characteristics or qualities of persons right scientists may create use of this method of organizing things the way you classify depends on what characteristics you think are important an important way of classifying things or classifying data is through a tree diagram and scientists use this very often look at this tree diagram of fruits and notice this it is from the general term fruits and from fruits you go down to specific examples at the head is the word fruits and then you have three major categories under fruits simple fruits aggregate fruits and multiple fruits simple fruits are again divided or categorized into two major parts one is dehesant and the other is indehesant these dehesant are of two types dry fleshy indehesant are also of the same type dry and fleshy then you have examples under dehesant you've got the dry category under the dry category you have something like rubber that is also a fruit and in the fleshy category you have balsam and in the de indehesant type of fruit the dry fruit is your almond and your fleshy fruit is the mango the second major category under that you have the fruit clematis and under multiple fruits you've got the pineapple now this information can be put into text form text information in text form can be converted into a diagram a tree diagram like this and you shall have practice in writing text of this type you have a group of sentences they form a text and this text refers to the classification chart on fruits except for the first sentence they are not in the most logical order a number of sentences are given you only the first one is in the correct in is in the correct position you try to arrange these sentences according to a logical order to form a complete text which fits the organization of the classification chart now you keep looking at the classification chart while I read out these sentences for you number one there are three general types of fruits simple aggregate and multiple fruits this should be number one of the text on fruits the next sentence is examples of dry dehesant fruits are fruits of the african tulip rubber and the pod of the flame of the forest flame of the forest is the name of a tree the third one is an aggregate fruit is one which develops from a flower with several ovaries number four is example of fleshy indigiscent fruits are the papaya mango and banana number five each ovary develops into a separate fruit and so a cluster of fruits may arise from the main fruit stalk number six is the guava tomato and coconut are simple fruits number seven a composite a multiple fruit is one which develops from a group of flowers number eight the jackfruit and the pineapple are examples of multiple fruits number nine both dry and fleshy fruits may be either dehesant that is they split open allowing the seed to escape when ripe or indigiscent that is they do not split open when ripe and the last sentence is fruits are also classified as dry and fleshy fruits you keep looking at the tree diagram now which sentence let us try and put these sentences in the correct order sentence number one is fine it is it should be the first sentence that there are three general types of fruits simple aggregate and multiple fruits and if we start writing from the left hand side then the six sentence the guava tomato and coconut are simple fruits right and the tenth sentence which is fruits are also classified as dry and fleshy should be your third sentence and the fourth sentence should be both dry and fleshy fruits may be either dehesant that is they split open allowing the seed to escape when ripe or indigiscent that is they do not split open when ripe and number five should be example of fleshy indigiscent fruits are the papaya mango and banana this should be followed by examples of dry dehesant fruits are fruits of the African tulip rubber and the pod of the flame of the forest this should be followed by an aggregate fruit is one which develops from a flower with several ovaries and number eight should be each ovary develops into a separate fruit and so a cluster of fruits may arise from the main fruit stalk and your ninth sentence should be a composite you are moving from the left to the middle and now you have moved to the right side of the tree diagram which is a composite or multiple fruit is one which develops from a group of flowers and the last sentence should be the example of a composite or multiple fruit and that is the jackfruit and the pineapple are examples of multiple fruits so you noticed that when you are writing a classification you have to stick to certain conventions writing a classification is based on convention that is what is a convention a convention is something that others the way others have done it you will follow writing in the convention that has been set but remember it is mainly it based on your purpose in making the classification whatever is your purpose in making the classification that is the uppermost thing that should be in your mind data and ideas are divided into categories right and this is done in a logical way now there are some types of ordering the some types of order in a classification one you can do it according to time which is you can classify things from older to newest going back to ancient times beginning from ancient times to modern times you can move from the general to the particular you can talk about emotions and then come down to talking about envy anger love hatred you can and then there is a third way of organizing things of when you are classifying things and that is according to a scale your scale could be of importance you start from the most important to the least important when you are writing keep these things in mind either you start with the most important thing and you gradually move to the least important you can also take size and when you are talking about size you can either begin from the largest to the smallest or move from the smallest to the largest a third type of scale is familiarity you begin from something that is best known to the least known so let me repeat again for the sake of remembrance that when you are writing a classification you usually do it according to the conventions that have been set for this type of writing but it is your purpose that is more important and you can divide data and ideas into categories and this has to be done in a logical way some of the types are that you can organize according to time from the oldest to the newest right from the most ancient to the latest you can organize from the general to the particular or from the particular to the general and then you can describe classify things according to a scale scale of importance you have scale of size you have scale of familiarity any one of these would be fine for the sake of a sample let us look at a table it is given you on your screen the general heading is education and under education look at the way education has been classified education has been classified for you under two broad categories formal and informal under formal again there is a division you have full time school college university and then you have part time so formal education can be split into two full time part time under part time you have evening classes you have short intensive courses and you have research based study which you do on your own you can go and join something and you have research based study now research based study can be taken full time as well so you have research based study under part time and you have it under full time now these were the categories under formal education under informal education you've got correspondence courses the open university courses tv broadcasts radio broadcasts adult learning centers and self-study courses now that was a sample for you you can classify things from the general to the particular that was an example here is another example look at this address see how this letter is addressed doctor maz 80 shah house number 41 street 27 mohalla aranya sialkot panjab pakistan what is the order of organization over here simple you will notice that it is from the smallest to the largest it began with the house number 41 which is the smallest unit then it moved on to the street and from the street it moved on to the mohalla that whole area and from that area it moved on to the city sialkot and from sialkot which is a dist which is an an area of panjab it moved on to panjab and from panjab it moved on to pakistan notice the way this letter is addressed you will notice that in some of the way we address letters in in our languages it is usually from the largest to the smallest many letters that are written in urdu and even in arabic they begin from the largest from pakistan then it will move back to the city and from the city it will move to the area the the location from location to the street from the street to the house and of course at the bottom they have the name so that way of addressing an envelope is correct so is our way of addressing envelopes they are both ways of classifying things now you will see a table and some of the most common language that is used in sentences when you are writing classification is shown to you and you will notice that there are three main ways number one when you are writing a classification that is the purpose of your writing these are the expressions that are used in english number one you will write these are and whatever it is types of notice the colon there is a colon and then you go on to enumerate or spell out the types a b c d whatever that is one expression one way of writing the other is there are whatever y b c kinds of and you will colon and you will then you can even say they there are y whatever classes of and then you will enumerate you can also use the the expression the types the why types of the why kinds of the why classes of the why categories now why I by why is a symbol it could stand for anything the fruits of this type right the butterflies of this category you've got the word categories and then you have expression like these are whatever a b c d whatever you have to say right now that is one way of writing classifications these are typical english expressions let us look at number two the second type are whatever you are writing about x consist of and then you say categories full stop these are a b c you can say x or whatever you are describing birds beasts animals whatever can be divided into categories into classes into kinds right and then you go on to enumerate please make a note of the punctuation that is being used notice where you have these are this is preceded by a full stop and where you just have a b c that is preceded by a colon so you can use expressions like consist of or can be divided into right into categories into classes into kinds into types and then you go on to spell out those types and the third way of writing classifications these are common english expressions is that you start with the type and you say a b and c are classes of whatever a b c and c are kinds of whatever you have to say or you want to say a b c or types of whatever and then you have a b c or categories of x y z whatever you have to see these are very common expressions used in writing classifications all scientists all students of science make use of these expressions what i want you to note is the punctuation marks notice in one it is a full stop and then you enumerate in the other type you have a colon and then you enumerate these are the three types of main common expressions now in today's lesson let me just recap for you what you have learned today you have learned how texts are organized they can be organized if you are doing a spatial description you organize according to a pedestrian view or you organize according to a bird's view right a bird's eye view for spatial relationships you use the either the pedestrian view or the bird's eye view and then you have certain expressions for expressing locations right you use words like southwest northwest if you are using the points of the compass right if you are dividing according to that or you begin from the outside and you come to the inside you begin from the top and move to the bottom you move from the left to the right from the right to the left these are different ways of organizing spatial descriptions you have also learned in today's lesson how data can be classified and arranged in diagrams and texts now by now you should be familiar with some of the expressions of classifications and you should be able to use them in sentences and texts we you looked at three diagrams and you learned how to write in a way that illustrated the diagram and you learned how to write use specific expressions and with that we come to the end of ways of organizing texts longer texts are organized there are many other ways but we have concentrated on three major ways next time inshallah we shall still be on writing but we will move into another area and that will be the how to write summaries summary writing is going to be our next focus and after that we shall talk about we shall focus on areas that pose problems for writers of English especially the use of the article students Pakistani students of English have great problems with the use of the article the an and then we'll move on to passives and phrasal verbs and tenses verb tenses these are all these are areas that pose problems for students of English their writings suffer from these major defects and now that we are moving towards the end of our course I shall introduce you to certain language functions and I hope by the end of this course you will have enough experience of writing in English and with that we come to the end of today's lesson hope to see you next time inshallah Allah Hafiz