 Let us have a look on our slide which shows that which type of ecosystem is present in which area. The major ecosystems in Pakistan. Pakistan has a variety of climate and variety of seasons. We have these main ecosystems. The temporary deciduous forests which are present in Sugra and Neelam valley, the very beautiful green forests in which the plants shed their leaves and their leaves changes color in a specific season. We look so beautiful and then they shed their leaves and change their leaves in spring again. These are present in Sugra and Neelam valley, the coniferous alpine and boreal forests. These are comparatively colder forests. These are present in Gagan, in the Malam Jabba in Sawat, in Deer and in Chilas areas. Then the grassland ecosystems. These are present in Gilgit, in Kashmir, Viziristan, in Chitral, Kalat. We have rich grasslands. We have some very important and very huge deserts. We have deserts in Miawali, in Bhakkar, in Bahawal Nagar, Bahawalpur and many more areas. We have three important deserts called Thal, Thar and Cholistan. Thal which is present on the Miawali-Bhakkar side, Thar which is present in the Sindh, the province of Sindh and the Cholistan which is the desert near Bahawalpur. Then we also have the Tundra, the ecosystem which is present on tops of the mountains, very very cold, extremely cold, have freezing temperatures. These are present in Pakistan, in the mountains of Karakoram and the Hindukash. So it means that Pakistan is rich in ecosystems, in their types and in biodiversity because we have almost all types of climates and we have almost all types of the wathers, the seasons. Now we briefly talk about different types of terrestrial ecosystems and their properties. We talk about the temperate deciduous forests, for example. These are the forests which are present in Southeast Asia, in India, parts of North America, China, Japan and Pakistan. These are the areas which are the areas of moderate temperature. Temperature is usually from 4 to 30 degree centigrade, a temperature that is good and supportive for life. The rainfall is also good, it is from 750 to 1500 millimetres annually. It's a good rainfall. Different types of plants grow in this area. We call them mostly deciduous plants. The plants will shed their leaves in fall. There are plants which are called Texas, Pinus, Berberus, different types of ferns, grasses, herbaceous plants. There is a wide diversity of plants present in this particular climate. There are lot many animals present. In Pakistan particularly we have resus monkeys, we have leopards, we have blackbeers present in those areas, we have different types of birds which inhabit those areas. The soil of these forests is very fertile and rich in nutrients because we have lot much of biodiversity and we have a good temperature to support life. Soil is very fertile and rich. The human interference comes here. Humans collect firewood from this area, those people who are living there. Also some people cut wood for furniture or for use in buildings. Some people hunt animals. Animal hunting also have its effect and the wood cutting also have its effect on the ecosystem because if we cut wood and we do not replace it with newer plants growing then this may result in loss of habitat. And then lot many other organisms for example animals living on those trees will become homeless and they may die or they may migrate. If the animals are hunted for example if the carnivores are hunted then all of those animals on which those carnivores were feeding will increase in number. When they increase in number they may kill more small animals or may be they eat upon all the grass of that particular part of ecosystem. So the whole ecosystem gets disturbed if some of its components are disturbed and human interference is particularly hunting animals and this is about cutting woods. We can manage it if we replace, if we are cutting a tree we are planting five or ten trees then we are balancing. If we are not doing it we are going to destroy the ecosystem. The picture in front of you shows a temperate deciduous forest in North America. Now we talk about the coniferous forest. The coniferous alpine and boreal forests these are the forest which have lower temperature. Temperature is from freezing to 10 degree centigrade. This is more hostile or harsh for life. So specific life forms can exist. The plants which are living in an area in this type of climate in this type of forest are usually evergreen plants. These plants have a specific type of leaves which are needle like and which are covered with a vexy surface. These leaves can survive in these harsh environments. These leaves actually help these plants to survive in these harsh environments and they do not shed their leaves. So we call them evergreen, always green. Pineous species grow here. They have specific vexy needle like leaves to survive. Highly adaptive animal species can survive in there in these ecosystems like Marco Polo sheeps, Bicens and wolves, Blackbeers in Pakistan and the coniferous alpine and boreal forests in Pakistan. Human disturbance is comparatively less because these areas are less accessible. These are on the tops of mountains and these are very cold. So usually human interference is less. But again the human interference is same as that of deciduous forest that is hunting and cutting the wood. Have a look on a picture of a coniferous boreal forest. We can see long coniferous trees. Then the grassland ecosystem, these are present in Pakistan in various areas, Chitral, Kulgat, Kashmir. These are present in Eurasian countries in the world, in North America. There are two major types of the grasslands called prairies and savannah. Prairies are those grasslands in which woodless trees exist. Savannah are those grasslands in which the woody trees exist. Australia for example is rich in prairies and this is the reason that Australia have a very good livestock. Pakistan is also quite rich in these grasslands and this is the reason we also have a good livestock in those areas. The rainfall in these areas is about 250 to 750 millimeters annually. So water is a crucial factor. The plants and the organisms, the animals which survive in this type of ecosystem are those which can tolerate less quantities of water. Mostly the grasses grow there. The tall grasses, the short grasses, legumes, herbs, mosses, lichens. So these ecosystems have a water shortage comparatively but they do have a rich biodiversity because organisms which are living here are highly adaptive to this type of situation. There is also a rich animal biodiversity in these regions which includes the reptiles, different types of lizards, amphibians, mammals. There are a lot many decomposers like fungi and bacteria present in these ecosystems. Human impact is important in this ecosystem because usually human use, these are for their livestock because these are natural areas where the animals can grow very well. We use them for our livestock, for feeding our livestock. We also use these areas for agriculture. This is very important that because water is a limiting factor and specific types of plants can grow in this area. If there is an over grazing, for example if we are, if there is a specific area in a grassland and we are keeping too many animals and they eat upon all the grass or they are eating much more than the production of grass naturally occurs, then this may result in destruction of the ecosystem. Because grasses and these plants, the tall and short grasses and the legumes and the herbs and mosses and other plants they grow comparatively slower because water is a limiting factor. If animals are too much and they eat upon all of these, then what will be remaining to eat? So, this may result in destruction of the ecosystem and many times it happens and then re-growing that ecosystem is again a long process. Because of human interference these ecosystems could be more easily disturbed in comparison to the forest which are less accessible. Here you can see in the picture a grassland in China which looks very rich in its grasses. Then comes a desert ecosystem. Pakistan have different deserts, Thar, Thal, Cholistan. In the world there are a lot many different deserts. The mountainary is an ecosystem which has a hot and dry climate. Rainfall is about 25 to 50 millimeters. There are perennial plants, there are cacti, the plants have specific properties because water is too short. Plants have specific types of leaves and stems which are succulent which store water in themselves. The animals which live in these areas, the deserts, they adapt to specific mechanisms to overcome the shortage of water. For example, a very dilute urine are almost solid pieces, solid nitrogenous ways. For example, the kangaroo rats, different types of reptiles and birds can survive this area. The human interference actually converts different areas into deserts. We call it desertification. The grasslands and the other ecosystems, if not many, for example, in a grassland, if we keep too much livestock, then they can eat upon all the grasses and ultimately that area could be converted into a desert. So, deserts are, we say that in the world are increasing because the other areas are by human interference usually converting into deserts. We call it desertification. Some plants in a desert area, we can see they have very thick leaves. These are normal cacti that we usually grow in our lawns, then tundra, very cold snow ecosystems. These are the ecosystems, for example, in Pakistan, present on the tops of Hindukash and Karakram. They have small perennial flowers because temperature is too low, there is a snow cover. In these areas, in small perennial plants, mosquitoes grow very well and birds are also present in quite larger quantities because they feed upon the mosquitoes. There are white bears, there are foxes, there are snow or snow leopards, for example. Human interference is less. In this ecosystem, human interference can very easily destroy the whole ecosystem. But fortunately, these areas are not in excess of human beings. There are few people which can go in these areas and disturb them. So this is a fortunate happening that these are not very accessible. Let us have a look on pictures, some pictures of tundra. You can see the tops of the mountains, a snow cover in the winters. We can see a yoke, a specific animal. We can see it is covered fully with hairs from all sides. White bears also survive in this ecosystem. White bears also have a lot much hairs and a thick layer of fat on their body, which protect them from cold. So this was about different types of ecosystems in the world and in Pakistan. Now have a look on some pictures taken from different ecosystems in Pakistan. A very, very rich diversified forest in the Khabar Pakhtunkhwa area. Human interference, people visit there, enjoy the nature, they spread these dirty things. So human interference can disturb the ecosystems and this may result sometimes in destruction of the ecosystem ultimately. You can see another effect of human interference. Monkeys which are present actually in lower areas, they come up towards mountains because human beings provide them food and this result in lappards coming behind these monkeys on the tops towards human places because these lappards then, because monkeys come up, they do not have food and they follow monkeys and they come up. And then they eat our goats. You can see monkeys playing but there is too much of dirt. Another effect of human beings, black bear, which was present in quite large numbers in these forests but now this become extinct due to hunting because of its beautiful fur. People killed it. And now it is extinct. This is not present in that particular area. You can see different trees. You can see a tree which is called a snag. Actually this is a tree which is actually destroyed due to lightning. Then this tree become the habitat for different types of birds. So this was about the ecosystem, its biotic components, its abiotic components and examples of different ecosystems of the world and of Pakistan.