 Kokeillaan, että teidän tehtäisiä on yksityisellistä ja valitettia tehtäisiä tehtäisiä on tärkeää katsomista. Tämä videon olen katsomaan linkin, tehtäisiin ja tehtäisiin, ja miten se linkin on katsomaan emperikapapuolella. Tämä idea, että linkin, tehtäisiin ja tehtäisiin, on, että tehtäisiin on jotain, joka näkyy ja sitten aika koko tehtäisiin tehtäisiin tehtäisiin. Meidän on tärkeää, että tehtäisiin on on tärkeää tehtäisiin. Jos tehtäisiin on tärkeää tehtäisiin, niin me ei voida kensain, että tehtäisiin on tärkeää tehtäisiin. Eli se on ihan sillain, joka tällä linkin on jotain, joka täytyy olla edelleen. Tämä esiimeinen way tosi, on jo introduced the concept of an empirical concept between the theoretical concept and the actual measurement result, joka on tehtävä dataa. IDL on yksinkertaisuinen, että se on yksinkertaisuinen konceptu, jota on tehtävä tehtävä konceptu, jota on tehtävä tehtävä dataa. Joten katsotaan, miten se tarkoittaa tehtävä. Me tarvitsemme esim. ja minä käytän tämän esim., jossa olen usein usein. Tällä vuotta 2005, supported companies have the largest 500-financing, where we found women-led companies were 4.7% in this point, more profitable than men-led companies. We want to make a claim that naming a woman as a CEO causes the profitability to increase. So our theoretical concept here is the CEO gender. second theoretical concept is profitability or performance. Then we have to figure out how exactly we link those two theoretical concepts to the data. How it works is that we introduce the empirical concept. We have been using this diagram before when we were discussing about inductive and deductive logic. The idea was that we started a theoretical proposition. Then from the theoretical proposition we derive a testable hypothesis that is on a lower level of abstraction. Then we collect some data and we test for statistical association which allows us to make claims about the correctness of the hypothesis and then correctness of the hypothesis. The idea was that we apply deductive logic so that if the proposition is correct then the hypothesis should be observed and then we check if we actually do observe. By calculating something based on our measurement results. Our focus this far has been on the proposition, hypothesis and statistical association. We haven't really discussed much about these arrows here. Now we're going to be looking at specifically what these two arrows here mean. Let's go back to our example. So the first concept was CO-gender and we need to have an empirical concept that we can actually collect data for. For example if the gender of the CO is the theoretical concept we could have the result of a medical examination as an empirical concept that is something that we can observe data for. But that's not a practical solution. In practice we can just use an empirical concept or we can define it as whether the CO's first name is a man's name or a woman's name. That of course could have some reliability or validity problems because we may not be able to know for sure that a name indicates a woman because some names are used for both genders. Then we have specific names for specific CO's. The same thing here. We need to have a concept. We have the performance that's the dependent variable, theoretical variable. ROA is the empirical concept here in the example and then we have ROA data for specific firms. Now the question is how do we justify these relationships? How do we justify that whether the CO's name is a man's name is a reliable and valid measure of the theoretical concept? How do we justify here that ROA is a valid performance measure and how do we justify that our data is reliable? Let's take a look at ROA. So why would ROA be a valid and reliable measure? We have to first understand what is reliability and what is valid here. Reliability here in this figure is here between return on assets, the conceptual definition of the empirical concept and the actual data. So do we get the same data again if we collect the same data for the same sample? With ROA because it's an accounting figure that comes from a database, we conclude that it is probably highly reliable. So reliability is here and then validity on the other hand is a much more challenging question. Can we claim that return on assets is actually a valid measure of performance and how do we do that? Reliability is fairly simple to argue. So the simplest way would be just to measure the same thing again, demonstrate that you get the same result, then it's reliable. So reliability is not about whether the variable actually measures what it is supposed to measure. It's simply that if we do the study again, do we get the same result? Doing the study again, doing the measurement again is a simple way of doing it. Validity on the other hand, we have to argue that return on assets is a valid performance measure. So how exactly do we do that? There are a couple of different strategies, but this is a non-statistical argument. So it's an argument based on theory and based on your understanding of the phenomenon. For example, we could argue that ROA return on assets is a valid measure of performance because that is a performance measure that investors and managers care about. So if it's a relevant measure for investors and managers who we hope to inform with our study, then it's a valid measure. So that's one way. Another way of thinking about it is that the purpose of a company is to generate profits and generate money for the owner. So that's the purpose of a business organization. And then return on assets is a function of that money generated divided by the money invested in the term as assets. So it's kind of like a way of standardizing taking into account that companies of different size produce different amount of results. So it scales the ultimate output, which is the profits based on the company size. So that would be an argument for ROA as well. But this is not a statistical argument. It's an argument that this is a relevant metric and it's based on either that we have a theoretical understanding what is the purpose of the organization. Then we say that this reflects a purpose or it could be made by arguing that it's a relevant variable for practitioners. Either way, it's a substantive instead of a methodological argument. So this is a statistical problem, reliability, and this is a theoretical and a philosophical problem. So it relates to really is this relevant for the readers of your audience and your theory. So most researchers, when we do research, we apply the empirical concept as a proxy. And in practice that means that we simply assume that the empirical concept is equal to the theoretical concept. So once we have argued that this empirical concept has some relevance for the theory, then we use it as a substitute or a proxy for the theoretical concept. The reason for that is that we really cannot measure a theoretical concept directly. So using this empirical concept as a proxy is the best thing that we can actually do. Let's take a look at how Deep House's paper does this kind of thinking. So they had a proposition there about strategic similarity and performance. Then they are using relative ROAs, their performance measures the empirical concept and strategic deviation as their empirical concept measuring strategic similarity. And then they had some data that they used to calculate this result. How do we argue that strategic deviation is a valid measure of strategic similarity? Simply the fact that it's labeled similarly to strategic similarity doesn't really mean anything. The fact that we decide to label something doesn't give it a meaning. So that is called the nominalist fallacy. If we claim that just because we decided to name this strategic deviation, it must be a measure of strategic similarity is not a valid argument. So how do we justify? We talked about ROA in the last slide, so that's simple. The strategic similarity, their argument is basically that which asset categories to hold is one of the most important strategic decisions of commercial banks. So that's the argument for why they take these different asset categories into consideration. Then they claim that previous research has summarized these different asset categories that they use for calculating strategic deviation in a certain way and they use the same approach and they just cite the other study for justification. So the way you argue for validity, there are a couple of different ways. You have to first explain the relevance of the variables or the data for your theory. In this case, asset categories are relevant for banks and then the actual measurement approach, you either have to justify yourself or you can say that others have used these approach and others have provided justification. If you do that, you must be careful that you actually check that the paper that you cite provides a justification because sometimes researchers use completely unjustified measures and just the fact that something has been published with the measurement approach doesn't make that measurement approach necessarily valid. So you have to look at the actual validity claims and validity evidence in published studies when you decide which measurement approach to use.