 Jerome Bruner's theory of development is based on the assumption that we learn best when we go from concrete to abstract in a three-step process. First comes hands-on action, then learning with images, and finally students transform what they've learned into language. Throughout the experience, we constantly revisit previously learned topics, while teachers provide carefully structured guidance along the way, and it seems to work. In the 1980s, the Singaporean government decided to stop importing foreign textbooks and, instead, build the world's best maths curriculum from scratch. Since that time, Singaporeans study fewer concepts with greater detail, following Bruner's guideline. Before we learn how well this worked out, let's go through each step of the theory with an example. First, we learn through inactive representation. This happens in hands-on experiences, ideally with real-world applications. To divide four by two, two students learn to cut a cake into four slices, so each can eat one now and bring one home later. Step two is iconic representation. We now link our memories of the experience to iconic pictures. Students are asked to draw a cake that was cut into four pieces. First comes symbolic representation. We now use the images we internalized earlier and turn them into abstract language, such as mathematical symbols. Using a little bit of retrospection, we can easily solve the problem. This last phase is also called language-based, because we are really just learning the right words and symbols to express our thoughts. The actual maths knowledge was acquired much earlier through hands-on experiences. Bruna, therefore, advocated for the use of spiral curriculum with continuous repetition of the same fundamental ideas. The curriculum is comprised of three characteristics. Students revisit the same topic at regular intervals. The complexity of the topic increases with each revisit. The new learning has a relationship with previous learning. Teachers also use scaffolding, a term coined by Bruna. Students do this by structuring activities based on students' existing knowledge and in a way that helps them to reach the desired learning outcome. The teacher first demonstrates the process as the student watches. Then the teacher lets the student have a go, steps back, and offers support and feedback when needed. Today, by the way, Singapore's fourth and eighth graders are the world's best in both mathematics and science. And Singapore's maths curriculum is copied by educators from around the world. Jerome Bruna was born blind in New York City in 1915. At age two, modern medicine restored his vision. Later, he returned the favor by becoming a pioneer in cognitive development. He believed that any subject can be taught in an intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. What do you think about Bruna's theory and his suggestion for better learning? Is this how you learn in your studies? If not, what is one subject that you think could be made more understandable by following his ideas?