 Okay. I think it should be recording. Do you see a little record button, Mark? Like a little thing at the top that says that it's recording? Yep, we do see that. Great. Great. Hi everybody. Welcome to our Ask NCAR program. My name is Mark and I'm a science educator at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. This is in Boulder, Colorado. I'm with my colleague, Donna Colomber-Darzy, and she's a project scientist in global change ecology at NCAR. Of course, we're each in our own homes just like you are today, but we're still doing our work and we'd like to share it with you. Each week, we meet with someone who works at NCAR and learn about what they do at their jobs and answer questions from those of you who are joining us. Maybe some of you have already sent in questions ahead of time, but if you haven't, that's okay. Please feel free to write in the chat box anytime and I will monitor the chat box and I'll get back to you between breaks or at the end. One really cool part about working at a place like NCAR is there are so many different types of jobs, such as being a scientist, an engineer, an electrician, a computer programmer, a safety expert, a machinist. All these different jobs and more help support our scientific research. Now I'm going to turn it over to Donica who's going to tell you more about what she does and then take questions at the end. Hi everyone. It's nice to see all of your faces. I hope you're all doing well in this work at home and stay at home situation. I am a scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research and my research, what I do every day is I try to understand how to keep plants growing in our changing world. And to do this, I study things like how air pollution and climate change affect plants, how plants can help us to combat climate change, and how we can continue to grow our food as our environment changes. So today I'm going to share one of my favorite projects with you. I want to start by looking at a photo of a leaf. So this is a leaf of a plant called a cut-leaf coneflower. What do you see on this leaf? Do you notice anything unusual about this leaf? You can enter a chat in the chat box too if you want to. All right, maybe we should go to the next leaf, Tim, and see if anybody notices anything unusual there. Ooh, dots. It has spots. Yeah. Okay. So you see little black specks on the leaf. You see some spots. Yeah, this is a picture of a milkweed. You see the same thing. I think that there are two more photos that we can look at. Do these plants look healthy to you? We're getting a lot of information like pale around the edges, lots and lots of spots. We're seeing the black spots. That doesn't look very healthy. Well, good. So it doesn't look very healthy. Any idea what might be causing this damage? They look tasty. They don't look healthy. Atmosphere, ozone, bugs, disease or pests. So those are all good guesses. And so what I'm going to tell you actually is that this is caused by air pollution. Do you ever think that we could see air pollution on plants, the effect on plants? Probably not. It was a surprise to me too when I first learned about it. So these are plants that are just growing in a garden outside of our National Center for Atmospheric Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado. They're just exposed to regular air, just the kind of air that you and I breathe. But we have high air pollution here in Boulder and the specific pollutant that's high is ozone. So ozone can be confusing because you've probably heard about it in the ozone layer and that's where it's helpful. But it's taught in the air that we breathe. Tim, can you go to the next slide? Yeah. So here's a diagram of the layers of our atmosphere. As you can see, we have our atmosphere is really quite large. And in the stratosphere, this sort of the darker blue color, the second from the bottom, that's where the ozone layer is. And so ozone is a molecule that is three oxygens that are all connected together. And in the stratosphere, the ozone is beneficial to us because it blocks sun's harmful UV rays from hitting the Earth's surface. And so you've probably heard about the ozone hole and we don't want a hole in this layer of ozone because then sun's harmful rays can come through and they can give us more sunburn and contribute to skin cancer. But that same exact chemical, those three oxygen molecules, when they're in the air that we breathe in this troposphere layer that's at the bottom, then it's toxic to us. And anytime that we have to breathe ozone, it's toxic to us. It's just that when it's in the stratosphere, we're not breathing it. So I'm going to be focusing today on ground level ozone, thinking about this. And so this is ozone that occurs in the troposphere. And the way that ozone forms is not, it doesn't come out of your tailpipe. So it's a really tricky pollution problem because it's formed in the atmosphere. And we call that a secondary pollutant and it means that it doesn't come from a specific source, but it's actually chemically, it's formed through chemical reactions in our atmosphere. And so the chemicals that reacts to form with ozone are things like nitrogen oxides, which you see on the screen here is NOx NOx. And so that's all the reactive nitrogen oxides that you can find in the atmosphere. So that can be NO or NO2. And then we also need volatile organic compounds, which we call VOCs. And this is something like the smell of paint or the smell of gasoline. Actually, a lot of paints are now low VOCs, but the smell of gasoline, for example, or the smell of French fries. Those are volatile organic compounds that are causing those smells. And so we need both of those chemicals in the air and also sunlight. And when you have sunlight, it catalyzes this reaction, meaning it makes it speed up. It happens a lot faster. And that's what forms ground level ozone. So it's a tricky pollution problem. And it affects plants. What do you think it's doing to us? Do you think it's good for us? It's doing that to plants? No, probably not. So I'll show you a few more photos, Tim, if you want to go through the next few slides. So this is cone flower. On the top is cone flower on June 11th. On the bottom is August 23rd. Do you notice the difference between these two plants? For these two leaves? Yep. Looks yellow and spotted on the bottom. Yeah, dots and yellowing. I'm seeing some of these comments come in. It's lighter and speckly. It's true. And that's because the ozone has to get inside the leaf and then it does damage. And so the longer the leaf is exposed to ozone, the more damage it can get. Do you want to, Tim, maybe the next? I think that there's two more. Yep. So this is the snap bean plant. And you can see on the top, the snap bean looks much healthier. And on the bottom, you can see that there are some really terrible looking leaves. They look like they've been damaged quite a bit. And so this is all, like I said, this is all damaged just from ground level ozone. One of the things that I want to point out here on this photo is the fact that you see those top leaves, those are the new leaves, and they look bright green. And then the leaves on the bottom, those are the older leaves, and those are the leaves that look damaged. And so that can give you a better indication of how this ozone damage can accumulate through time on the plant leaves. Yeah, I think one more, Tim. This is a milkweed leaf. And so you can see the same thing between the top and the bottom. So one other thing that I want to point out is one of the things that you can see here, you can't see it maybe as well as on some of the other photos. But the damage only occurs on the top surface of the leaf, and it only occurs in between the leaf veins. And it starts off as these dark colored spots, as you saw in the cone flower and in the snap bean and in the milkweed photos earlier. And so one of the things that stands out is that the leaf veins are not affected by ozone damage. And that's one of the major characteristics that you can see to identify whether or not this is ozone damage. Monica, there's a great question out there. I know it's hard to follow. So somebody wanted to know, how can you tell the damage is from ozone and not just maybe from not getting watered right? Yeah, well, that's a great question. And water is important. So Tim, maybe skip down to the third slide after this. Slide number 12. The next one. Yeah, there you go. So this is not ozone damage. And I wanted to illustrate this because there are very characteristic symptoms that something is, that something on the leaf is ozone damage. One is that the spots are usually dark, so they can be brown or black or purplish. They're usually dark. They occur on the top surface of the leaf. So when you flip over the leaf, you shouldn't see it on the bottom, at least when the ozone damage is in the early phases. Once the leaf starts to die a little bit more, then you get to start to get more damage. But like I was just saying, it doesn't cross the leaf veins. And so this picture that's on the left side of your screen, that looks like it could be ozone damage because it has a lot of dots and they're on the top surface of the leaf. But if you look closely, you can see that these dots are overlapping with the central vein, and that's how I know that it wasn't ozone damage. And in fact, when I went to this leaf and I just rubbed those spots with my thumb, the spots came off. And that's because this was insect poop that was on the leaf. It wasn't actually ozone damage. On the on the right, you see that the spots are light in color. And that's this these spots are caused by a leaf hopper insect, which goes in and eats the top part of the leaf out. So both of these actually can mimic ozone damage and they look a little bit like ozone damage. But they're not for those, for those reasons, because they either cross the leaf veins, they're not the dark colored spots or, you know, maybe sometimes you can see the damage going through to the bottom, which indicates that it's probably not ozone damage. Ozone damage can look a little bit different on the different types of leaves that you see. And so getting used to what it looks like is really helpful on the certain kinds of plants. You know, there's a question or three out there. One was, you know, why was the milkweed looking less damaged than the others? Is there a reason maybe one plant looks worse than the other? Or was it just when your pictures were taken? Yeah, so there's a, those are, these are all great questions. And so one of the, there are a few things. One is that sometimes the milkweed leaves come out later in the season. The plants don't start growing as early as some of the other plants. So that could be one reason. But another big reason is that even though ozone can enter the leaves of all plants, it does not damage all plants the same way. And that is because plants can stop ozone from entering the leaf by closing their pores. They have pores on the bottoms of their leaves that are called stomata. And those are specialized cells that open and close in response to environmental cues like sunlight or water availability. And so when the plants, the plants, this is another part of the reason why the previous question asking about not being well watered is also important because when the plants are drought stressed, or if there's high levels of ozone, they might close their stomata so that they're not losing water or that they're not letting ozone into the pores of the leaves. So that is one defense that a plant can have against ozone is to not let the ozone enter, to try not to let the ozone in. But sooner or later that plant is going to need to get the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere that it makes into food. And so it does have to open those pores at some point if it wants to survive so that it can get the carbon to make the food it needs. And at that point it will allow ozone inside the leaf. But the leaf also different plants can have different amounts of what we call antioxidants, which are things that maybe you've heard of. Sometimes they're in lotions or in fruits, antioxidants are really important because ozone is what we call an oxidant, meaning it causes oxidative damage. And that has that capacity. And so these antioxidants will scaven to the ozone and it'll sort of eat the ozone up and not let it damage the plant. So there's differences across different species of plants in terms of their sensitivity to ozone. And there is also, there are also differences even within one species of plant and it can be based on genetic differences within those plants. So, you know, you and your brother or sister might have the same parents but you do have slightly different, you know, you're all somewhat different. You're all in the same family. You don't look identical. And so that is, that is a way to think about how these plants, even though they're the same species of plants, they might not all have that same functioning. They might not have that same resistance to ozone or tolerance to it. So, I was going to ask Tim, if you could maybe put it back on a picture of ozone damage, instead of the no ozone damage. Yeah, and a question came up is, what are we going to do now that these are damaged? Is there anything we can do? Can we save this plant or is this plant doomed? Yeah, no, we can save the, we can help the plants. So there's a couple of things to think about in terms of the plants. So plants will grow new leaves. Like I showed you, Tim, maybe go to the one side before this, right before this, because I can illustrate this point potentially a little bit better. So if you look on the bottom here, you see that there are some leaves that look really bad but there are some leaves that are bright green and actually look healthy. So the plant keeps growing new leaves throughout the growing season. And so if we, even if plants look unhealthy, if we can stop our ozone pollution at a certain point, then that plant will be able to recover. Under most, throughout most of the United States, the ozone damage isn't going to kill the plant, it's just going to hurt the plant. You know, so with that, the plant is not growing as well, which has a lot of consequences for us, but it will survive. And so, you know, we can, the plants will survive, we can help them to grow better by reducing the amount of ozone that we have in our air. You know, what another great question was like, do the plants that have damage to the leaves get thinner? Or is that just an optical illusion? Well, what happens is what the ozone damage does is, you know how plants lose their leaves in the fall? A lot of these plants will stop growing and their leaves will fall off. Ozone damage speeds up that process and so it makes the plant drop the leaf a lot more quickly. And so that's part of the process. For some plants that might, I don't know how much, I don't think it really affects the thickness of the leaf very much, but they do start to look churgled and dry and papery. And it's very similar to when a plant loses its leaves in the fall, it just is happening, you know, this is happening in August, we do start to see the damage in July as well, here in Colorado, at least in Boulder, in Colorado. And somebody was wondering, does this happen quickly? Or, I mean, I know you've shown some dates on your pictures showing like between June and August or July and August. So to me that seems like it takes a couple months, or does it just take a couple minutes? Well, it depends on a lot of things like your ozone concentrations. And so in some places the ozone can damage the plant much more quickly than in other places if they have high ozone concentrations. When this is actually one of the questions that we're trying to answer, we're trying to figure out how quickly that ozone damage occurs and how much it relies or how much it depends on those ozone concentrations. And we know that ozone concentrations are really important. So you have, if you have more ozone, the plant is going to get damaged more, but we still don't have a good understanding of what the time scale is. It does seem like it's a couple of months. It can, if you have high enough ozone concentrations, it can happen in a few days, even. And so we have what are called ozone bio indicator gardens all over the country and we're starting to also have gardens internationally in a couple of places in Europe right now when we're working to grow them in other places. And at these gardens we have bio indicator plants and bio indicators just mean that they, the plants biologically indicate that our air is dirty. And so they function, if you've heard of the canary in the coal mine where the canary is telling the miners when the air is dangerous to breathe. That's kind of what these plants are doing out in our environment. They're biologically indicating that our air is dirty. And so we're planting these all across the country and we're actually asking citizen scientists like you to help us collect data at these gardens. Tim, I have another picture of just some citizen scientists. I think two slides down. Yep, collecting some data. So on the top photo you see that there's some people looking at the signs for our ozone garden at NCAR and on the bottom photo is a high school student who is helping me collect data on one of our cut leaf cone flowers in one of our gardens. You can see that there's a few other people in the garden also collecting data. And so what we're trying to do is to better understand when the ozone damage is evident on the leaf and how severe it gets. Most of that leaf is covered in ozone damage. And so what we really need to know is, when are you out there collecting this data for us? What day is it? Because that gives us an idea of how long that leaf has been exposed to ozone. And then how, how, how much damage is on each of those leaves. And so we categorize them on a scale of one to six, depending on the percentage of the leaf that is damaged by ozone. So that's, that's one way that you can help is if, if you have a garden that's near you, you can help us go look for that ozone damage on those bio indicator plants in that garden. You know, this is great. I have one or two really more question critical questions I think and then we should probably go to our kind of our ending thoughts but you know is there a place in America that's better or worse for ozone damage I thought that was a great question. Yep, yep. So Tim, if you can go to the next slide. So this is, this is a image of the United States and of ozone concentrations in the United States. And so I just want to highlight a few things in the US, the EPA, the Environmental Protection Agency limits ground level ozone because it's toxic to humans just as toxic to plants, limit ozone at 70 parts per billion. And this is averaged over the course of eight hours. And so a per per billion is really small. It's one part of ozone per billion parts of water, or air, actually in this case, the reason that I say water is because I have an example that equates it to water. That concentration of 70 parts per billion is less than one cup of water in an Olympic sized swimming pool. So even tiny amounts of ozone are toxic. If you look at this graph, you see a lot of different colors and I want to highlight that anything that is yellow, orange, red, pink, all of those colors are, they don't comply with EPA standards and so you can see there's many, many places across the US where we have poor air quality that is not meeting the environmental protection agency's limits for ozone. The other thing that you can see on this graph is that the worst place for ozone is in California, unfortunately. And so that's, you can see all those pink and red dots, that means that the ozone concentrations are really high there. Some of the best places are places like Montana or North Dakota, where they have pretty low ozone concentrations. The other thing that I want to highlight is that, so the EPA limit for humans is 70 parts per billion. And while plants, some are more susceptible than others, we generally think of plants as being susceptible to ozone at 40 parts per billion of ozone. And so, you know, in most places anywhere that is light blue, green, yellow, orange, red, pink, any of those places, that's where plants can have this ozone damage and so that's almost everywhere in the country. You know, that's something that's coming up here is now, so does that affect our food? Yeah, of course, yeah, it does affect our food and you saw some of the photos of the potato and the snap bean. You saw what those leaves looked like earlier on. And, you know, Tim, maybe if you want to go back to some of those photos, slide three or slide four might be a good one to go back to. But yeah, the ozone is damaging the leaves of all of our plants so that it's also damaging the leaves of our crop plants. And in doing that, the plants have less energy to put into our food and so it is damaging our food and in fact in the United States, there have been studies that have shown that we are losing about $9 billion every year in food production loss due to this ground level ozone. You know, folks out there, we intended to go for 20 minutes or so with this presentation but your questions are so great so if you can stay, we're going to add a couple more questions and then we'll have Donica wrap up with some solutions, hopefully. But another great question came out about, is this going to affect all plants and in other words I think the question is, is which one of these plants are bio indicators or are all plants bio indicators. Not all plants are bio indicators but that does not mean that they're not affected. So there are some plants that are more sensitive to ozone than others. The least sensitive tend to have the highest amounts of antioxidants and so if you think of another type of antioxidant is actually vitamin C and so if you think of vitamin C and how much vitamin C is in different plants, that's a good indicator of which plants may or may not be as sensitive to ozone. Matt said, just because you don't see spots on the leaves of the plants does not mean that they're not going to be damaged by ozone. And even at high enough ozone concentrations, even the plants that are less, that are less sensitive and that are more resilient against this ozone pollution, even at really high concentrations, they will be affected. And basically what happens is, like I said, the ozone has to get inside the leaf and once it gets inside the leaf, if there's enough ozone inside the leaf, it can, it damages a lot of the enzymes and membranes that are in the leaf and it causes cells to die. And so that's part of what you're seeing on these plants. That's what makes them bio indicators. And so sometimes the cells might not die, but they might be, you know, taking that carbon dioxide and turning it into sugars, a lot less. And so you're not going to have as much, the plant is not going to be fixing its own food quite as much when it's exposed to ozone compared to when it's not. And so you can still have that damage without seeing the visible damage, the plants can still be damaged. So there are some plants that are bio indicators. This picture here is common milkweed. So that is one bio indicator plant, tall milkweed is another species of milkweed that's a bio indicator. We have a species of milkweed in Colorado that's called showing milkweed and that one isn't a bio indicator, but that doesn't mean that it's not hurt by the ozone. Cut leaf comb flower. That's another bio indicator plant that is often damaged by ozone. We have specific varieties of snap bean and potato in our gardens that are also sensitive to some soybean plants are sensitive to ozone. There's a quaking aspen can also be sensitive to ozone ponderous of pine. So there's a whole whole lot of plants that really can be quite sensitive to ozone and can act as bio indicators. In fact, the National Park Service I think has a list of not of ozone bio indicator plants. So you can always look at if you want to know more information on which ones are bio indicators. You know, and one other question I thought that was interesting is said, does this happen to things that don't have leaves like cactus? Well, we don't know that actually. It's, it's possible, but it's also cactus, they because they are in such dry regions, they tend to not open their. So those pores that allow the carbon dioxide to get in they open those at night and not during the day and at night because ozone needs sunlight to form. There's not as much ozone at night and so I think for that reason we haven't looked at it as much because we don't expect cacti to be quite as sensitive to ozone as some of these other plants. You don't know for sure it's entirely possible that they are it's just that nobody has ever studied it yet. So how long has this been a problem? Is this new or is this something that's been for all of growing history? Well, that's, that's another great question. It's, it's been a problem since the Industrial Revolution, I would say, and that it's, it's growing. It was really, really bad in the 1950s. And in fact, the ozone, ozone pollution has gotten much better over the, in the United States at least over the last 50 to 60 years. And that's because we have put restrictions into place to try and limit the amount of ozone. So the Clean Air Act is when they, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency decided, you know, we really need to reduce the amount of ozone because it's toxic to people and it's actually, you know, for some people it can be toxic enough that it causes them to die. And that's not what we want. And so that's why they started putting restrictions in place. And in fact, our ozone nationally throughout the throughout all of the United States, ozone concentrations have decreased by 35%. So that's pretty good, but we still have a lot of work to do. Part of the reason why it's been since the Industrial Revolutions and really ramping up in the 1950s is because humans have put a lot more of those reactive nitrogen compounds and the volatile organic compounds that form ozone into the atmosphere. There is a natural level of ozone that is in the atmosphere in the ground level and that's closer to 10 parts per billion. And you see, you know, on this map here that in many places, you know, there's, there's, I don't know if I see any dots that are in that, that really dark, dark blue that zero to 30 parts per billion range. I don't think that there's anywhere that's really has that range of ozone in the United States at this point because everywhere has been affected by the emissions that has increased ozone. Thank you. And you know what, a great question again came up. And we're going to have to cut off questions here because we are about the top of the hour. But if you did eat a plant that had ozone damage, would that hurt you? No, because the ozone reacts really quickly, it's just not going to be as nutritious for you, but the ozone once it does the damage that means the ozone is gone because it's, it's, it's damaged something and it's reacted with it. So it's not going to hurt you if you eat it, but it's not going to, it's not going to be as nutritious for you if you do eat that ozone damage. Okay. And another question that maybe Tim could go back to the EPA picture, somebody wanted to know what do the white areas mean if you don't have dots. You're good to go. Yeah, no, that does not mean that you're good to go it just means that we don't actually have data for that region, we only have data for the regions with the dots and so you can see that. The ozone monitors are actually really expensive, they can be $5,000 or more. And so it's not cheap to have them around and monitoring. And so, in a lot of places, ozone is only monitored in places where we have higher populations and so that's why you see a lot of monitoring along the West coast, in the eastern half of the United States. You can see in parts of the Rocky Mountains, but you know there's not as many people living in Nebraska, for example, and you can see that there's really only one or two points in Nebraska where ozone is being measured and similarly in Montana and in Idaho, you have a lot less people and a lot less ozone monitoring so it doesn't mean that you're good to go it just means that we don't actually know what those ozone concentrations are. Awesome. I think before we go to solutions which is going to answer several questions that have come up. One more question that's not about solutions is just that if we brought a damaged plant inside with that help. It might help a lot of times we have less ozone pollution inside there are other indoor air pollutants. And that's one thing to consider is the fact that there are other air pollutants, but the ozone concentrations inside tend to be not as high because we don't have that sunlight that's generating the ozone as much inside as we do outside. There are some exceptions like photocopiers actually produce a lot of ozone so if you're in a room with a photocopier maybe that's not the best. Also, and I highly recommend against using these but there are air purifiers that use ozone to purify air and that's because ozone kills things. If you're using one of those it's going to kill your plants please don't use those if you can I very much recommend against buying them do not buy those if you can help it. Great well let's have Tim shift to solutions because a lot of people want to know how can we limit ozone then how can we get rid of this stuff down at the ground level. Yeah, so um so there are individual actions that you can take and there are also larger national actions that need to be implemented and so there. There are things like we need to make sure that our factories are not are not emitting as many things and a lot of solutions actually are very similar to climate change solutions. Because the same things you know our vehicles in our industry that is releasing all the greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are also releasing a lot of their reactive gases as well that form air pollution so air pollution and climate change are two different things. But at the same time they can be solved in similar ways. And so actions if you want to help reduce your impact things that you can do or you can drive less and use public transportation, you can not idle more than 30 seconds in your car. You need to make sure that your car is properly tuned and you meaning that you want the tires inflated. And if you can use an electric or just the most fuel efficient car that you can. I would say ride your bikes more than then you know to and from places if you can do that that's similar to using public transportation and driving less. Other things that you might not realize is like I said sunlight is part of the product is part of what creates the ozone. And so if you're doing things with gas powered equipment like yard work when you're mowing your lawn. Or if you're doing other things that you remember how I said the smell of gasoline is a VOC. So if you refuel your car in the evening or you do your yard work in the evening that's also going to help reduce your impact on air pollution. And then there's also this step of choosing lower volatile organic compound or VOC paints carpets and other household products. So you can reduce your impact in those in some of those ways personally and then we can also just try and try and make sure that the federal government is also trying to limit emissions from some of those power plants and other places. So clean energy is really important. Driving less is really important. And then thinking about the time of day that you're doing these things is also an important step that you can take. That's great. Well folks I realize there's a lot of questions out there and I know we can't we could probably talk all day to Donica because she's got such great information. But Donica do you have anything to just maybe wrap up. No I want to I mean I guess what I would like to say is the fact that we are making progress. So it's not it's not an endless hopeless story we are making progress and we have to keep making progress so we have to keep cleaning up our actions to to reduce air pollution. And this will also help us combat climate change because if you think about the air pollution is hurting those plants and they're not taking as much carbon into their leaves that carbon dioxide is staying in the atmosphere and acting as a greenhouse gas and so reducing air pollution is going to be beneficial for both your health plants health and for our climate. So all of those things are really important. And I think that it's you know we we have worked so far on improving ozone concentrations and we can still do a lot more so I challenge all of you to keep trying to reduce your impact. Awesome. Well, you know, it's been really fun to explore the job of a global change ecologist like Donica. And we'd really like to thank Donica Loma does he for telling us a bit more about her work. Thanks to everybody for joining us today. It was an incredible chat. Thank you so much we tried to keep up the best we could. We'd like to learn more about what we talked about today or the weather or the atmosphere or about the sun or system science. Please visit our website. We have a collection of resources that are perfect for learning at home. And I'm also going to post that link into the chat box and you can also see over my head, the URLs for the information today that was useful that help people go to Donica's work. If you'd like to follow us, you can look at for more things like this on our Facebook page in the future, and we'll have additional virtual programming and other opportunities there in the near future. Mark, if you could just be sure that that's shared with everyone what you posted the link. Gotcha. I will share that with everyone I did not share that with everyone yet. Thank you. I was in the wrong thing. So siad.ucar.edu is our basic website. And if you go to that URL in the chat, you can get a whole bunch of information about what we do in our where we work at here in Boulder, Colorado. Thanks everyone. Thank everyone for coming. Have a great day. And we hope to see you again soon in another virtual program. Bye now.