 Hope you all are able to see my screen now yes We start with endocrine system See the endocrine system. It includes Endocrine glands and their hormones as you all know So what are the functions of hormones? Hormones are secreted by some glands and these hormones are traveled to the bloodstream and they show their function in In specific parts of the body So the functions of the endocrine system is to sacred hormones into the bloodstream that is the function of endocrine system So what is a hormone a? hormone is a chemical messenger which targets a specific group of cells and When it targets a specific group of cells it will cause some activity to show its activity there So the activity might be positive response and the activity might be a negative response also So it will show its activity on the specific target cell that is a hormone a Harmony is a chemical messenger which will target a specific group of cells So what are those endocrine glands present in our body? So these are different endocrine glands Penial gland which is present in the brain pineal and pituitary glands is both are present in the brain and One is thyroid gland which is present in the region of neck another is timers Which is present in the region of test this will say a specific locations. I'm just telling you and adrenal glands which are present on the kidneys both the kidneys and pancreas and You know that both test is an ovaries are reproductive glands These are the glands which are present in the body endocrine glands Exocrine glands are also present like pancreas Pancreas is a mix of crime when it is both exocrine and endocrine, right? Yeah, so we'll discuss each one of them in detail. So First, let us see what are exocrine glands and endocrine glands the difference between exocrine endocrine glands Exocrine glands release their secretions into the cubes endocrine glands They secrete they are duckless glands They will secrete their hormones or secretions into blood directly You can see few examples of exocrine glands liver. It is an exocrine gland It will secrete bile juice, which is released into gallbladder Then through the duck it will release them or it will move through the small intestine and Pancreas as I told it pancreas are mix of green glands. They're both exocrine and endocrine nature Exocrine nature, what is the exocrine nature of pancreas is it releases pancreatic juice into the small intestine and that is also via ducts That is about exocrine gland Endocrine glands as you all know they are duckless glands. They release their hormones directly into the bloodstream and blood Acting as a medium. It will transport those hormones through different to different parts of the body to the target cells Okay, each hormone acts only on certain kind of tissues and that certain kind of tissues are called as target tissues Yes, next you can see here Each hormone acts on certain kind of tissues called as target tissues. So what are the target tissues? Now you can see here. It is a endocrine gland. It is secreting certain hormones So this is the donor cell of hormone. It is secreting its hormones into the bloodstream This is the blood vessel the pink color one and sending This gland is secreting the hormones into the bloodstream. The blue color one is a hormone so the molecules of hormones are Traveling to the blood and you can see here There is a recipe. This is a target cell and the target cell have its receptor and this Chemical messenger that is a hormone to go and bind to the Deceptor here and will show it activity on this target cell and you can see here also the same is happening This is about endocrine glands and endocrine system All endocrine glands will function in the same way. This is the mechanism when it is asked for two marks You can represent. What is endocrine gland or endocrine system? You can represent it with this diagram So it would be easily understood by the examiner. Okay, clear Mum does this Do these receptors exist on every target cell or is it only a few of them? Receptors are present on every target cell. Otherwise, nobody can read the Chemical messenger. So it requires a receptor which can read the Hormones, okay. The volume of the hormones is it enough to bind to every target cells receptor? Yeah, the quantity is very less. So it is specific to each cell, right? The hormone whichever is secreting It is specific to each cell. So that would be enough for Enough for identification Okay. Okay, ma'am. Can you define in hormone? A hormone is a chemical messenger. You can see it here A hormone is a chemical messenger which target a specific group of cells and It in order to cause that group of cells to do some activity or to stop doing an activity. So Hormone can show a positive response or a negative response also Okay, it will show some activity Irrespective of it is a positive or negative We'll see what is the positive response or what are the negative responses also when we see them in detail Okay Yeah, these are the glands. I have already told you pituitary Penial thyroid parathyroid adrenal pancreas Testis and ovaries. These are the different glands. We'll study each one of them in detail Yeah, so first let us study which is a very very important gland pituitary gland When you study these glands Important thing is you need to remember their location. Where are they present second thing? What are the hormones they are secreting? Let me write it down here so When you study those hormones What are the things to be remembered? first one location and Second thing is hormones secreted by them third one is function and fourth one Disorders Disorders are not required for all. It is required only for few glands that I will mention it here Okay, these are the four things you need to remember location Hormone secreted function and Disorders guys, I'll request you all to keep to be in mute Otherwise, it will be disturbance for others Okay, so first let us see the pituitary gland, which is very important Pituitary gland is a round argon and its size is about a pea approximately 1 centimeter in diameter So it is located in brain as you all know, but where is the specific location located behind the bridge of the nose? At the base of the brain, this is the exact location. So it is present in the brain So what are the what are the hormones that are secreted by pituitary gland pituitary gland secretes nine different hormones Which affect different areas of the body? Pituitary gland have two lobes as you all know pituitary gland so pituitary gland Have two lobes What are those two lobes? anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary anterior and posterior Pituitary so this is how the structure looks like so one is anterior pituitary Other one is posterior pituitary. So anterior pituitary secretes growth hormone MSH LSH follicle FSH Okay, all these hormones are secreted by anterior pituitary posterior pituitary Secrets only two hormones those hormones are one is vasopressin anti diuretic hormone second one is oxytocin only these are the two hormones that are secreted by posterior Pituitary the rest of the hormones are secreted by anterior pituitary only so This is a secreting it secretes nine different hormones which affect many different areas of body those Many different areas are it it affects the growth of the human body It affects the blood pressure. It regulates the pregnancy, you know oxytocin FSH all these regulates pregnancy breast or milk production and It also regulates the gonads sex organs both in men and women it regulates the thyroid gland It regulates the metabolism of the body carbohydrate metabolism protein metabolism and lipid metabolism of the body It regulates water level in the body. It also regulates temperature. These are the main functions of the pituitary gland One is growth blood pressure pregnancy regulation milk production. It regulates gonads thyroid gland metabolism Water level regulation and temperature regulation. These are the functions of pituitary gland So let's see here. These are the hormones secreted by anterior pituitary growth hormone growth hormone is somatotrophin Which promotes the growth somatostatin which inhibits the growth? So growth hormone to increase the body size during childhood and adolescence It also maintains the body size during adulthood. This is the function of growth hormone Next one is thyroid stimulating hormone. It secretes a hormone known as Thyroid trophine. Thyroid trophines are divided into two types T3 and T4 T3 and T4 try idothyronin and tetra idothyronin And the function is to simulate the thyroid to produce thyroxine. What is the function of thyroid gland? You know okay Follicle stimulating hormone FSH it regulates the puberty development or reproductive process FSH and LH have More functions on menstrual cycle So Lutinizing hormone it stimulates the production of estrogen and testosterone Okay So I have told you the disorders of growth hormone Like disorders of each gland is important So growth hormone the over secretion or the hyper hyper secretion of growth hormone leads to a disorder known as Zygantism Okay in childhood and acromegaly in adults Zygantism Means excessive growth will be seen in those people Zygantism in childhood and acromegaly in adults Okay, hyposecretion means undersecretion of growth hormone leads to dwarfism These are the disorders of growth hormone Okay, next is thyroid gland So this thyroid gland is located in the neck in the region of neck as you can see here This thyroid gland is located and it really is a hormone Thyroxine What is the function of this thyroxine hormone? It basically regulates the rate of metabolism in the body Metabolic rate is regulated like carbohydrate metabolism is regulated. Okay So what it is essential for normal physical and mental development also So over secretion of thyroid thyroxine results in nervousness and weight loss Undersecretion hyposecretion leads to Cretinism, so it is mental retardation in children. Okay These are the disorders of thyroid gland and these are the functions my function is mainly to regulate metabolism Okay, so here you can see it leads to goiter also iodine deficiency in your diet results in goiter Which leads to enlargement of thyroid gland? You can see in the picture here The enlargement which it is a normal case and it is the in the patient who have goiter Goiter is caused by iodine deficiency Then so next is para thyroid gland and just been behind the thyroid gland para thyroid glands are present as for lobes So, what are the function located here? So it is located behind the thyroid gland in the neck region itself just behind this you can see here Para thyroid gland as four small glands. It is located so it is also helpful in metabolism and also it regulates the level of calcium it regulates the level of calcium and It is necessary for normal nerve and muscle function blood clotting and healthy bones and teeth as it regulates the calcium metabolism Calcium is very important in the nervous system for a For a neuron to carry impulse from one neuron to the other neuron You know in the synapse calcium is very required very much essential If calcium gates do not open and calcium is not sent Towards the nerve endings the hormone like what are the message message cannot be sent from one neuron to the next neuron That is how calcium plays very important role in the nervous system and same happens in the muscle and Muscle if you know muscle mechanism for tropolin and tropomyosin to function again Calcium plays a very very important role and in blood clotting. Yes, it is very much essential and Bones and teeth, you know, it is a component of bones and teeth Those are the functions of para thyroid gland and the hormone released by para thyroid gland is parath hormone so under section under secretion Hypo secretion of this hormone again results in brittle bone disorder and It blood clotting problems and nerve disorders. These are few disorders of para thyroid gland Hope everyone are able to follow Yeah, and next is adrenal gland Yeah, adrenal gland It is you can see here as these adrenal glands are located on the top of the kidneys like a hat So located on the top of each kidney hormones released by these Adrenal gland is cortisone. It is not cortisol cortisone and adenalin Okay functions of cortisone is to regulate carbohydrate protein and fat metabolism Same as thyroid gland and it promotes conversion of fats and proteins to glucose Okay Functions of adenalin is to raise the blood sugar levels and increase the heartbeat and breathing rates. This is also Cortisone will help in metabolism and adenalin will help in blood sugar Regulation and heartbeat regulation. So this is the function of adrenal gland. So Hypo secretion of these adenalin hormone it results in the inability to deal with stress The people with less adenalin cannot deal with stress Okay, next is pancreas pancreas I Told it has both endocrine function and exocrine function as pancreas secret bile juice That is exocrine and function when comes to insulin and glucagon These are endocrine hormones and that is secreted only by eyelids of hangar Langerhans Okay, so there are alpha cells and beta cells present in the pancreas beta cells Which has eyelids of Langerhans it secretes insulin and glucagon as Yeah, you can see here located on pancreas the hormones secreted are insulin and glucagon and Insulin and glucagon very much required for the regulation of blood sugar levels in the body Insulin what do alpha cells do that has exocrine function Beta cells have endocrine function endocrine function Yeah, insulin it stimulates the glucose uptake from the cells and Glucagon it promotes the glycogen to glucose both of these have Antagonistic functions they function in opposite way so that if one will increase the blood sugar level Other one will decrease the blood sugar level Okay, so they can balance the blood sugar level in the body So insulin glucagon are blood sugar regulating hormones and they're very much essential for Sugar level regulation clear Yes, yeah And over secretion of insulin insulin results in low blood sugar Okay, because it uptake insulin will uptake the sugar from the blood cells Under secretion of free it results in high blood sugar. You can see this in the case of diabetic patients There is impairment in insulin secretion in those particular patients. So they have very high blood sugar Okay, and this can lead to the condition known as diabetes. Yeah, there are two different types Diabetes type 1 and type 2 which are not required in detail. I have just kept it to discuss that type so type 1 and type 2 Diabetes are present and type 1 which has frequent urination and thirst extreme hunger and Unusual weight loss extreme fatigue and irritability. These are few symptoms of the patients having diabetes Okay, and see it refer the symptoms differ from diabetes type 1 to diabetes type 2 See here in diabetes type 2 it has blood vision also Yeah, a few symptoms that frequent urination is present in diabetes type 2 also and Apart from that blood vision is also present and numbness of Hands and feet that is one more thing which is more important in diabetes type 2 So these are few things about endocrine system Yes, and this is regulated endocrine system and endocrine hormones are basically regulated by Feedback inhibition feedback mechanism positive feedback will increase the secretion of those hormones Negative feedback will decrease the secretion of those hormones as I told they have both positive function and negative function Positive feedback helps in increasing the level of the hormone negative feedback helps in decreasing the level of the hormone Okay, and let me show you. Yes, I need to show this. Yes, please be thorough with this particular Table thyroid will secrete two hormones thyroxine and calcium and as I told they regulates the Metabolism parathyroid secretes paratharmon. It stimulates the release of calcium from bones Yes, again as insulin and glucagon Cassitone and paratharmon are antagonistic in function. They help in Regulating one will increase the level one will decrease the level so it is stimulating Paratharmon is stimulating the calcium from bones and this is inhibiting so both of these will function Antagonistic to each other. Yes, pancreas are lids of flanger hands. It secrete hormones insulin and glucagon Again, both of these will help in regulating the blood sugar level adrenal See adrenal gland is again divided into adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla adrenal cortex release the hormone epinephrine and It is responsible for stress response Let's keep yourself in mute Krithika Narayan Yes, yeah, next is pineal gland Penial gland it secretes a hormone which is present in brain. Penial gland has shown you it is present in brain It secretes a hormone melatonin. It helps in regulation of sleep cycle Okay, and yeah TSH Thyroid stimulating hormone. It stimulates It is of thyroxin and growth hormone It stimulates growth during infant infancy and puberty Antidiuretic hormone ADH which is secreted by posterior pituitary gland. It helps in like regulation of water level kidneys It helps in many basically though it increases or decreases the function of or regulates the level of water in the kidney Okay, oxytocin. It affects the child childbirth and even during lactation for secreting the milk and also for It ring contractions during labor. These are functions of hormones Yes, so this is about endocrine system. If you have any doubts in endocrine system I'll give you two minutes. I will go through if you have any Questions here If you have any doubts, yeah, you can ask those doubts also in two minutes. If you don't have any doubts, we'll go to the nervous system Yeah, hi hypothalamus is not there in your syllabus, but hypothalamus is known as master gland for pituitary gland Hypothalamus regulates pituitary. Let me draw a flow chart and show how it regulates exactly hypothalamus releases hormones known as releasing hormones releasing hormones in turn induce this pituitary gland So Pituitary gland you as I told here it has anterior pituitary posterior pituitary. Let's say Let us take adrenocortico trophic hormone ACTH are thyroid stimulating hormone These are the hormones of pituitary gland secreted by anterior pituitary Right. Hypothalamus will secrete adrenocortico trophic releasing hormones and Thyroxine releasing hormones So this adrenocortico trophic hormone will induce this ACTH Thyroid stimulating hormone will induce TSH So that is the function of hypothalamus. That is why it is called as master gland of pituitary gland Pituitary gland is a master gland for rest of the glands. Hypothalamus is a master gland for pituitary gland Okay, and let me check for other doubts Adrenal medulla, see adrenal gland. Yes, it is divided into adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla medulla have gonadotrophic hormones gonadotrophic hormones will help in reproductive system Regulation of those hormones is Trojan, Progesterone and Testosterone. Adrenal cortex is mainly for this stress response, flight and fight response The function of hypothalamus is to regulate pituitary gland. Okay Yeah, parts of the brain will be explained in nervous system. Okay, fine. I cannot say any other doubts Hope all doubts are cleared Okay, next let us see Let us go to nervous system Yeah, first thing when you go to nervous system, you need to know what is stimulus Stimulus is a change in the environment to which living organisms respond Okay, to any change in and around us, we respond we respond to it. Then that is known as stimuli For example, we respond to heat and we respond to cold. Now it is very cold here So we use their pins to prevent ourselves. We use sweaters Yes, then there's two more doubts in the chat box. We just add before you close the thing. Yeah, check Yes, let me check How does Adrenal Detach itself from the receptors of cells? I didn't get the question Anurag What is what is the question? Can you ask it? It's just a little above what it means How does the body reuse the gluten hormone? That will be discussed little later Anurag. You can we'll discuss it in personal. It is a very lengthy topic Okay yes Coming back to nervous system The changes that is happening in the environment to which living organisms respond is known as stimuli A few examples of stimulus are heat cold and our response to sound Smell taste all these are different stimulus. Okay Living organisms respond to stimuli in the form of body movements Yes, and what is coordination? So, you know, let's take from bacteria to human beings the complexity or organization of the body is increasing Like in bacteria, not much Organization is required as it is very a small organism But in human beings and other mammals if you take the complexity has highly increased But we are completely organized and controlled Right because this organization is done by nervous system and endocrine system So what is coordination for a proper response to the stimuli? Many organs in our body should work together If one is not functioning properly, we might not respond to the stimuli correctly or properly So the coordination should be there to function or to respond to the stimuli The working together of various organs in an organism to produce a proper response Is known as to a stimuli is known as coordination Okay The working together of various organs to respond to a stimuli that is known as coordination In animals, yes control and coordination is done by the nervous system and endocrine system And in plants it is done by plant hormones phyto hormones will see in the later part of our class Okay So coming to receptors The receptors This these are very important these definitions are very important like coordination stimulus and receptors Receptors of the sense organs which receive the stimuli and pass the message to the brain or spinal cord Through different nerves. Okay This is a receptors of the sense organs, which they receive the stimulus From an organ they receive the stimulus that stimuli is passed to brain or spinal cord and brain and spinal cord start responding to that particular stimuli That is a receptor. Okay. There are different types of receptors Here for example, we have photoreceptors Which respond or detect the light Photoreceptors are present in eye Phonoreceptors, these are the receptors that detect the sound Okay, all factory receptors which are present in nose and these detect the smell Gustatory receptors are present in tongue and they detect the taste Thango receptors are present on the skin to detect the to detect touch So these are different receptors and five sense organs which respond to different stimuli Okay Now we need to know what is effector and effector There is different between effector and effector the difference between effector effector and effector So let's see what is effector and effector See effectors are the muscles or glands which respond to the information from the brain and spinal cord Okay So effector will give effector is basically the organ from where the stimulus is sent Okay, it is basically the receptor from where the stimulus is sent Okay So effector will send the information to the brain Or spinal cord this spinal cord or brain I will take the information and give it to one particular organ That have few receptors which respond to it those are effectors Okay, effectors will send the information effectors will receive the information Okay, that is the difference between effectors and effectors Okay And there are two different types or nerves also whereas sensory nerves One is motor nerve and other is a mixed nerve also. So we'll discuss what is What is sensory? What is motor? What is mixed nerves? Sensory nerves are the nerves Which carry information from the receptor to the brain and spinal cord. These are basically effectors a effect Please keep yourself in mute. Yes Basically sensory nerves are the nerves which take information from the organ to the brain or spinal cord Motor nerves they carry back information from the brain and spinal cord and give it to muscles or different glands These are basically effectors. Okay. So those are for effector the example is sensory nerve for the effector The example is motor now. Okay, and there are mixer nerves also which do both the functions Yes, when comes to human nervous system, ma'am. Yes Okay, ma'am. Could you stay on this slide for a minute? This PPT will be shared to you. You can later check if you have any doubts Okay Yeah, ma'am just one minute Okay, fine Your voice is not audible I had also the previous animal hormones thing Is adrenaline nor adrenaline again? Antigonistic hormones are they somewhat similar? Similar epinephrine or epinephrine are similar. They respond to flight stress response. So what is the difference? The difference between epinephrine and nor epinephrine. Basically both of them are responsible in regulation of stress. Okay Yes, ma'am. Please keep yourself in mute. I'll Give the answer Basically these both are very similar Neuro transmitters. These are basically similar neurotransmitters But see if you epinephrine will basically act on heart Okay It has more effect on heart Not epinephrine has effect on different parts of the body like let's say blood vessel Okay, so they have fun. They have difference in function only on different parts of the body Their function is same But they are act on different parts of the body that is the difference But they have a similar function. It is not like look on an insulin. They have similar function But they act on different parts of the body Understood Yes, ma'am got it Yes Guys concentrate on the class. I can see Many messages here which are not relevant to the subject Yeah, if you have any doubts unclear, I'll check the chat box later and we'll discuss those. Okay Yes, when comes to nervous system again, uh, these are the nervous system is basically divided into central nervous system peripheral uh, like nervous system We'll see what are the functions of each one of those in detail and what are the different parts that are coming under each each section Okay Yes Human nervous system It is divided into central nervous system and peripheral nervous system Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord It comprises of brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system. It consists of cranial nerves and spinal nerves Okay So here you can see this is a this is central nervous system. It includes brain and spinal cord But what about peripheral nervous system? Brain and spinal cord will send the information to different parts of the body and take the information from different parts of the body To these spinal nerves and cranial nerves. Okay cranial nerves are those which are connected to cranium Spinal nerves are those which are connected to spinal cord. So you can see here in this picture See, there are few cranial nerves which are connected to cranium and these are the spinal nerves. So This is peripheral nervous system and this is central nervous system Yes Yeah And what what is the basic unit of nervous system basic unit of nervous system is neuron? Neuron is the one which helps in transfer of impulses are passing the information from one part of the One part of the body to other part. Okay. So neuron is also called as nerve cell Yeah And the structure of neuron is very important and the parts has to be labeled clearly Okay So what is the neuron? neuron is a structural and functional unit of nervous system And it has it is made up of cell body cell body which is known as cytone and It is made up of an axon and it has axon terminals Okay, so cell body is also called as cytone Cell body have small thread like structures Root hair like structures which are known as dendrites which help in taking the information towards the neuron Are which helps sometimes giving the information towards the other neurons also Okay, so dendrites basically act as the mediators to pass the information from one neuron to the other neuron Okay, once the information is carried by dendrites, it sends it sends back the information to the Cytone cell body Yes, cell body has the nucleus and it also has Cytoplasm which has small granules those granules which are present inside the cytoplasm of the cell body Are known as nissel granules n i s s l e g r a n u l e s nissel granules are present in the cytoplasm of site Cytone or cell body. Okay, this cytone will extend and It leads to the formation of axon axon is a Like long A thin structure cube like structure Okay, and it helps in passing the information from cytone towards the axon terminals Okay, these axons are this basically okay axon is again It sends the information and we'll go to the information will be sent to the axon terminals are now endings Okay Like what what sends it from the dendrite to the axon From dendrite the information will be sent to the cytone Cytone will send the information back to the axon Axon will take this information and it will transfer towards the axon terminals are now endings Ma'am, but through what through what does it send it you said? Yes. Yes. I will tell it I'll repeat it. Okay The information will be sent from cytone to the axon axon to the axon terminals Okay, and Here you can see in between there is a gap Between these axons. There is a small gap like structures. These gaps are known as Nodes of ranviers. The rest of this is covered with myelin sheet and here you can see I let me draw the structure and show it to you that will be more clear see So this is the cytone from cytone. It is leading to the Formation of axon axon will Send the information towards the dendrites, right? This is a rough diagram This axon is very thin and it is covered by myelin myelin sheet This covered by myelin sheet Okay, this Here in this particular place it is not covered by myelin sheet. This is known as Nodes of ranvier This is known as nodes of ranvier. So what is the significance of nodes of ranvier? We'll talk about that Okay, so now you're clear with a structure and different parts of the axon Different parts of the neurons. Okay, so there are two different types of neurons One is myelinated neurons other is non myelinated neurons are unmyelinated neurons Myelinated neurons means it is covered with myelin sheet Unmyelinated or non myelinated myelinated neurons means they are not covered with myelin sheet So what is the importance of this myelin sheet? Myelin sheet is acting as an insulator Okay, it is acting as a protective covering to the axon That is the function of myelin sheet. Why should my axon be protected axon should be protected because it is carrying some information from one region to the different one other region, right? So if axon is not covered information can come from different sides of the axon also Not only from the dendrite the inform if it is not if it is just like this without Myelinated sheet the information come from from any side of the axon And that leads to disturbance to the actual information which is passing from dendrite towards the nerve endings, right? That is why it is covered with myelin sheet if it is not covered the information might not reach properly Proper response may not be seen. That is why myelin sheet is very much required. It is acting as an insulator Yes, but you can ask me a doubt There is a space and few information can be processed from here also Yes, from the nodes of ranmier the information can be sent into the axon As it is required, but if it is open everywhere without myelin sheet that would lead to disturbance If if one particular region is open for the information to enter the axon that is required for the axon Okay, so that is about the myelin sheet and its function And yeah, there are two demands. Yes, mom. Can you define a dendrite again? Dendrites are small thread like structures which are present Uh, we are present Uh, like which are the continuation of cytone or a cell body Cytone have small branched or root hair like structure called as dendrites Okay, and yeah next coming to the different types of signals Are different types of impulses. We have two different types of impulses Electrical impulses and chemical impulses So messages pass through the nerve cell in the form of chemical and electrical Signals called as nerve impulse. So what are nerve impulses? Narrow impulses are the chemical and electrical signals which helps in passing the Messages from one neuron to the other neuron That is nerve impulse. Okay, so that dendrites. So if let us think the information is sent from the One particular cell and it is passed to the dendrites dendrites will please Keep yourself in mute Yeah, now the dendrites will take this information That is the chemical in the dendrites receive the information and starts the chemical reaction So the chemical response is sent from to the dendrites and dendrites will process that information And convert the chemical signals into electrical signals Once it is converted into electrical signals So dendrites will pass the information to the cytone the electrical signals are converted to chemical signals or chemical impulses in the cytone and this Cyton will carry the electrical signals throughout the axon. From Cyton the information electrical signals will be passed throughout the axon and when it comes to the nerve endings again this electrical impulses are converted to chemical impulses. How is it converted? There are few neurotransmitters here. These neurotransmitters which have receptors will take the electrical signals and convert into chemical signals. Once the neurotransmitters will take these chemical signals they will transfer this information to the synapse. Synapse is this gap between one neuron ending to the next neuron. It is junction between two neurons. So these chemical impulses or chemical signals from neurotransmitters will transfer towards the synapse which is the junction between two neurons and from the junction there are receptors on the next neuron that receptors will take this information and give the information again to the dendrites. This is how the information is transferred or passed from one neuron to the next neuron. Okay let us see how it transfers from one neuron to the next neuron. Here this is one nerve ending and let us think this is one more nerve. Okay and here there are different receptors for neurotransmitters and now these neurotransmitters like dopamine, acetylcholine, they have these other different neurotransmitters. Now these neurotransmitters Could you explain what gray matter is? I didn't start the brain itself. I'm just explaining what is neuron. Okay. Yes. Okay so this is pre-synaptic neuron and this is post-synaptic neuron. Okay. So now the information had come throughout the axon and it has come to nerve endings here. In the nerve endings we have different receptors for neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are now ready here. They are active. They are activated by calcium gated channels and these neurotransmitters will burst open and send the chemical signals towards these receptors which are present here. These are the receptors you can see here and now this information will be sent to the synapse. This is the synapse. This is the synapse and now the information will come here and the receptors are ready here and the post-synaptic membrane also. You can see here this is the post-synaptic neuron and the receptors are ready here and those signals will come, chemical signals come and bind to these receptors and now the information will enter the post-synaptic neuron. Okay. This is one neuron. This is the second neuron. The information will come from here from the pre-synaptic neuron to post-synaptic neuron. This is how the information is passed from one neuron to the next neuron. Hope everyone are clear with this. Yeah. That is about neuron and nerve cell. See here this is the transmission of messages through neurons. Yeah. This is the pre-synaptic neuron and this is the post-synaptic neuron. This is the synapse. Okay. This is how the information is transported. I have shown you in like easier way so that you can understand how it actually happens. Yes. Yeah. Now let us come to the brain. It is very much important. Central nervous system it comprises of brain and spinal cord as I have told. Let us talk about brain here. Yeah. Brain is the main coordinating center in the human body. You all know brain is very much useful for controlling and coordinating our body. It is brain is basically protected by a cranium. It is protected by a cranium and it is also covered by three membranes or three membranes are also called as meninges. These three membranes are called as meninges which is filled with a fluid. That fluid is known as cerebrospinal fluid CSF. What is the function of CSF? It protects from the shocks. Okay. It will protect the brain from or it protects the brain from our skull from the stress or shock. Okay. The brain is basically made up of three parts that is divided into three parts. Four brain, mid brain and high end brain. The four brain. Let me show the diagram first. Yes. Here as you can see is how the structure of brain human brain. It has different lobes like parietal lobe, frontal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe. It has four lobes and yes the four brain consists of basically cerebrum and olfactory lobes. It is like what is the function of four brain? It comprises of cerebrum and olfactory lobes. So it has particular function. What is the function done by four brain? It helps basically in thinking. Like we have processivity, right? If you get the information. So if there is a vehicle coming from towards you, you will move towards the other side because you need to protect yourself. That analysis is given to you. The thinking process is given to you by four brain, right? And also it controls voluntary actions. Whatever voluntary, there are involuntary actions and voluntary actions done by you. Voluntary actions are done which are under your control, which are under your control of your will. Those are voluntary actions. All those are controlled by this cerebrum. It controls the touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight and mental activities like thinking, learning, memory and emotions etc. These are controlled by four brain. And next comes the midbrain. Midbrain is basically it controls the involuntary actions and also reflect movements of head, neck and eyes. This is the function of midbrain. And what is the function of hindbrain? Hindbrain basically it includes cerebellum, ponds, veroli and medulla oblongata. You can see here in the next slide, you can see the ponds veroli. This is basically known as brain stem. It includes ponds veroli, medulla and cerebellum. This four brain is also called, it includes ponds veroli, medulla oblongata and spinal cord. And let us see the functions. Cerebellum, it basically controls the body movements and it helps in balancing of the body. Posture and balance to the body is given by cerebellum. And what about ponds veroli? Ponds veroli it controls the respiration of the body, medulla oblongata. It controls the blood pressure, heartbeat and also helping in swallowing, coughing such functions. Okay, these are different functions of four brain, midbrain and hindbrain. And yeah, four brain is also called as prosencephalon. Four brain is also called as prosencephalon. What is prosencephalon? Four brain, okay. Midbrain is also called as misencephalon. Hindbrain is also called as rombencephalon, rombencephalon. These are other names for four brain, midbrain and hindbrain. Four brain includes, mom, yes. Mom, could you just write those three names down please? Yes. Four brain is called as prosencephalon, prosencephalon. And midbrain is called as misencephalon. Hindbrain is called as rombencephalon. Rombencephalon. Okay. These are known, these are different names for four brain, midbrain and hindbrain. Okay. So four brain, I told it includes cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain. 80% of the brain is occupied by four brain. And it also includes diencephalon and olfactory lobes. So these are three different parts which are included in four brain. One is cerebrum. The next one is olfactory lobes, olfactory lobes and diencephalon, diencephalon. These are included under four brain. And then midbrain and optic lobes, optic lobes, which are also called as corpora quadra germina and also cerebral peduncles, cerebral peduncles. Basically these details are very much important for the autonomous students. Midbrain comprises of optic lobes and cerebral peduncles. Optic lobes are also known as corpora quadra germina. They are present in corpora quadra germina. Cerebral peduncles are present in crura cerebrae. They are present in crura cerebrae. Okay. And hindbrain, as I told it has brain stem. What are those present in hindbrain? Cerebellum, ponsveroli and medulla oblongata. And the functions are very much clear. Okay. And I told you they have four lobes also. They are frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe, as you can see here. These are the four lobes present in the human brain. Okay. Yes. Next coming functions, you are clear with the functions also. Yeah. Let us go to the next spinal cord. Now we are clear with the brain. Next, let us see the second part of the central nervous system. Second part of central nervous system is spinal cord. The spinal cord is the continuation of brain stem. You can see here. Yes, from here it continues as a spinal cord from medulla oblongata. The spinal cord starts from the brain and extends throughout the vertebral column. It extends throughout the vertebral column. And it has different nerves which are known as spinal nerves. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. There are cranial nerves also, cranial nerves are 12 pairs, whereas spinal nerves are 31 pairs. Okay. So what is the function of these nerves? They carry the information to and from the brain, towards the brain also and away from the brain also. The information are carried by these nerves. Okay. And also it controls the reflex action. The spinal cord is very much required for controlling the reflex action. So what is reflex action? We will see. Okay. So these spinal nerves are five types. Those spinal nerves are five types. They are divided into cervical nerves, thoracic nerves, lumbar nerves, sacral nerves and coccygeal nerves. Okay. So you can see here, eight pairs of cervical nerves are there and 12 pairs of thoracic nerves are there. And lumbar nerves are five pairs. Sacral nerves are five pairs and the rest are two pairs which are combined to form only one nerve that is known as coccygeal nerve. This is how the nerves are divided. Cranial nerves, thoracic nerves, lumbar nerves, sacral nerves and coccygeal nerves. If you go with a back pain to a doctor, he will do a scan and tell you that there is a gap between C2 and C3. That means there is a gap between C2 nerve and C3 nerve, cranial nerve. Okay. If they tells it is gap between T4 and T5, it means there is some damage in a thoracic nerve region. Okay. That is how there are different regions in the spinal cord. Yes. That is about spinal cord. I told spinal cord is very much required for. Could you just repeat the number of each type of nerve again? Yes. Cranial cervical nerve, it has eight pairs, thoracic 12 pairs. Yes ma'am. Next, lumbar and sacral, lumbar five pairs and sacral five pairs. Yes ma'am. And coccygeal one pair. Yes ma'am. Two nerves are combined to form one. Yeah. Yes ma'am. Done? Yes ma'am. Next comes to the reflex action. So what is reflex action? Reflex action is a sudden unconscious involuntary response of the effectors towards the stimulus. Okay. Suddenly you touch the hot object, you remove your hand. Like suddenly you stamp on a prick on a thorn, you will remove your leg. That is reflex action, sudden actions which are done unconsciously are known as reflex actions. Okay. So these are few examples we suddenly withdraw our hand if we suddenly touch a hot object. Right? You will not give time to like time to burn your fingers or hands. You will remove suddenly because that is an unconscious response given by your spinal cord. Okay. So in this reflex action the nerves in the skin, those are the receptors that detects the heat and pass the message towards the sensory nerves. These sensory nerves will not take the information towards the brain. They in turn takes the instead takes the information towards the spinal cord. So the processivity is little longer if the information is taken towards the brain. It will take a little longer time to respond. But the spinal cord can respond very quick when compared to the brain. Brain also will respond very quickly. Like the information will be sent more faster by the spinal cord. So these sudden unconscious responses are the information is sent to the spinal cord rather than brain. So now yeah, the information will be sent to the spinal cord. Spinal cord will have both sensory nerves and motor nerves also. Sensory nerves will take the information and motor nerves or the motor neurons will take back the response given by the spinal cord and to send the information back to the effector. See you can see here in the diagram. See this is the send response. Your receptor is the skin and sensory neuron is taking the information. It is taking towards the spinal cord. The spinal cord will analyze the information. There is a neuron which is known as interneuron or relay neuron. Interneuron is also called as relay neuron. Like in class I have told you the examples like we have a relay game where the particular dumbbell is exchanged by four people and like it is a teamwork right relay. The same way here also it is a teamwork by sensory neurons, relay neurons and motor neurons. Relay neurons will take the information from the sensory and they analyze the analysis is done by the spinal cord. I will explain the gray matter and white matter in the spinal cord and this interneuron will in turn send the information back towards the motor neuron. This motor neuron will take the information whatever is given by the spinal cord response and will send the information to the effector. Clear? This is known as reflex arc. This particular thing this particular thing whatever mechanism this is known as reflex arc. The complete action or the function is known as reflex action. Clear? Now let us see what is the difference between gray matter and white matter. Yes this is how you need to draw the diagram when the reflex action is asked and one of you has asked the difference between gray matter and white matter. So as the name itself it is self-explanatory gray matter because it is gray in color it is known as gray matter and white matter because it is white in color. So gray matter here it come gray matter will have basically cell bodies and dendrites. Gray matter basically have only cell bodies and dendrites whereas white matter it has more of like it has more myelinated neurons and also it have here in the gray matter it has only cell bodies and dendrites but in the gray matter so in the white matter it also have complete neurons it also have myelinated neurons basically myelinated neurons are present in the white matter. So do clear cells come under gray matter or white matter? Wait one second yes yes yeah one second yeah I am telling you yeah gray matter is has only cell bodies and dendrites white matter have myelinated axons and neurons the complete set of things are present in white matter. So glial cells like what are the glial cells these are the cells that secrete myelinated myelin sheath glial cells and these please mute yes if you have a doubt please send it in the comment box okay these satellite cells as there are five types of cells which secrete these myelin sheath these cells are basically present in the white matter which helps in secretion of the myelin sheath okay astro sides glial cells all these are present in the white matter one second let me complete what is gray matter differences between gray matter and white matter yeah gray matter it is present in brain also it is present in spinal cord also white matter it is also present in brain and spinal cord right so these are the differences between gray matter and white matter and function wise it yes Shraddha you have some doubt mom can you repeat the name of the cells with that like help in production of myelin sheath astro sides astro sides glial cells then Shraddha yes mom quen cells also produce so these cells which produce the myelin sheath they don't have any uh yes receptors or any places to receive the neurotransmitters is it like yeah these also will act based on signals only whenever it's required only they will secrete the myelin sheath if it is not required it doesn't secrete but 90 percent of our neurons are myelin it's also no yes it doesn't play any role okay done next yes so these are different representations of reflex action you can see here clearly what is white matter and what is gray matter clearly than the last diagram and you can see here the difference between sensory neuron relay neuron sensory neuron is represented with blue color relay neuron with green and motor neuron with red color okay so these are different this is the easiest way to represent the reflex arc however this will be shaded to with you so you can go through that yes so this is about uh central nervous system and peripheral nervous system yeah there are spinal nerves and cranial nerves which help in response basically they send the messages they have sensory neurons motor neurons and interneurons which help in taking the information from receptor towards the brain and spinal cord from brain and spinal cord again back towards the effector that is about peripheral nervous system okay so yes yes now you didn't explain the functions of the matter functions of the matter uh this gray matter and the white matter yes okay first thing is location is very important and next what are the what are the components present in it that is also important okay and basically white uh this gray matter is helpful in analyze see white matter it helps in basically taking the information gray matter will helps in analyzing the information that is the basic difference between white matter and gray matter um could you repeat that white matter it consists of myelinated axon axons which are passing to to and from the brain all different segments of a spinal cord whereas gray matter it consists of only cell bodies and dendrites white matter helps in taking the information or sending the uh taking the information or response from the effector effector and gray matter basically helps in analyzing the information analyzing the information that is the major difference okay yes next we have to discuss about the coordination in plants also we have discussed in animals hope everyone are clear and in plants it is controlled and coordinated there is no as such nervous system endocrine system in plants there are phyto hormones which are known as plant hormones which are which are also a chemical substances which helps in coordination in plants okay so there are five different types of plant hormones they are oxenes zibberlings or gibberlings however you pronounce and cytokines abscic acid and ethylene these are five different hormones or phyto hormones which are present in plants which helps in coordination and control in plants so among these first three of them are growth promoters whereas last two of them are growth inhibitors oxenes gibberlings and cytokines are growth promoters whereas abscic acid and ethylene are growth inhibitors so oxenes help in basically cell division and cell elongation so they help in vertical and horizontal growth oxenes help in vertical and horizontal growth they help in cell division and elongation gibberlings they help in growth of stem and branches they help in growth of stem and branches both of these have more or less same functions oxenes and gibberlings cytokines again they are again coordinated oxenes are coordinated with gibberlings oxenes are again coordinated with cytokines and together they help in cell division and also ripening of fruits formation of fruits and seeds they help in formation of fruits and seeds not ripening formation of fruits and seeds okay so that is also one type of growth seen in plants so you can see all of these three are responsible for growth promotion now let's come to abscic acid abscic acid inhibits the growth and they also help in wilting of leaves inhibit the growth and helps in wilting of leaves ethylene again it helps in flowering and ripening of fruits so these are five different hormones which are responsible in controlling and coordination in plants yes next is types of movements types of movements which are very important see in plants again tropic moments these are the directional moments towards are away from the stimulus it depends on the growth so there are different types of movements again phototrophism geotrophism chemotrophism hydrotrophism phototrophism is nothing but bending towards the light or away away from the light so phototrophism is a moment or a response given by the plant towards the light if it is if the plant is bending towards the light then it is a positive phototrophism bending of shoot towards the light okay that is positive phototrophism if it is moving away toward away from the light it is a negative phototrophism bending of root away from light that is negative phototrophism so that is phototrophism Next comes the geotrophism. Geo itself you can understand it is towards the earth or away from the earth. Basically it is towards the gravitational force or away from the gravitational force. So geotrophism is a response or the movement of the plant towards the gravity. So if it is movement is towards the gravity then it is positive geotrophism. It is downward growth of roots. Roots towards the gravity that is positive response. If it is away from the gravity then it is negative response. Upward growth of shoot. Shoot is growing up away from the gravity. It is negative. Negative response shown by the shoot that is negative geotrophism. Next is chemotrophism. Trophism means movement. Chemo means chemical response. It is a response shown by the plant towards the chemical stimulus. So yes, growth of pollen tube towards the ovul. Pollen tube will be grown towards the ovul due to the small chemical stimulus. Because of the yes, you can use the sugar syrup also. If you do an experiment in the lab you can use sugar syrup and if you put the pollen grains in that you can see the pollen tube growth. So such such compound which is a sugar or carbohydrate chemical compound is present and that helps in growth of the pollen tube. That is known as response towards the chemicals. Hydrotrophism is response towards the water. Response towards the water that is hydrotrophism. Growth of roots towards the water that is an example for yes, that is the response towards hydrotrophism. Again few examples here about the again that I didn't discuss the functions of testis and ovary. Testis in males produce a hormone testosterone which controls the sperm production and change during the puberty. And ovary secretes the hormone progesterone and estrogen which have different roles and that will be discussed in the reproductive system. Much in detail here. Yes. So that is about endocrine system and nervous system. So I will give you two minutes. Please come with your doubts. Noradrenaline could be either dopamine or serotonin. Simphathetic wait let me check. Okay. Do you have doubt in nervous system? Peripheral nervous system is again divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system. I didn't go into much detail because it is not required for you. Peripheral nervous system as I have told it has functions like sympathetic and parasympathetic functions. Both of them will function antagonistic to each other. Yes. I will discuss one more thing here. The difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic. They both work antagonistic to each other. Parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system. Let me tell you the major difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. Yes. So sympathetic nervous system it basically prepares the body during emergency situations. Okay. Parasympathetic it maintains the functions normal functions of the body and parasympathetic nervous system basically helps during responding the body towards the when the body is at rest. So sympathetic will function during emergency conditions whereas parasympathetic will function during the rest. Okay. That is the main difference between parasympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic tenses you sympathetic will tense you. It responds during the emergency conditions. Let's say the function has to be done immediately. That would be done by sympathetic. Parasympathetic will do the normal functions which are required by the body. It is not real tension as such. Okay. And same mechanism as central nervous system for signal conduction. Yeah, I have discussed about the white matter and gray matter. Then. So, yes, these are the doubts. Yes, if you have any doubts, yes, I will welcome those doubts also. Meanwhile, I will discuss few important questions which are coming from this chapter. I have sheet which includes 64 questions which are coming from this chapter. And I have given solutions for those also. Yes. Let us see few questions here. How is the spinal cord protected in the human body? It is covered by a bony cage called vertical column. These are very small questions. One word answers here. You need to write that keyword. You need not write graphs of answer here. The examiner will be expecting only the keyword. Here the keyword is it is enclosed in a vertical column. That is more than enough. Okay. So, yes, here again an experiment analytic question is given. A plotted plant is made to lie horizontally on the ground. Which part of the plant will show positives eotrophism? Which part of the plant will show negatives eotrophism? Just root and shoot is the answer. Okay. So, the examiner will be looking for only one that keyword. Okay. Let us see one more question here. Name the sixth question. Name the plant hormone which help in promoting cell division, growth of the stem and roots. You know that is oxen. Oxen will help in oxen and also cytokinein will help in cell division. Growth of the stem and roots is done by gibberlin. So, you can write all those three hormones. And here cell division is done by cytokineins and oxen also. Growth of the stem is done by gibberlin. That can be written. Okay. And next however this worksheet will be given to you. Let us see one more seventh question. What is the function of thyroxine hormone? What is the hormone secreted by thyroid gland? You need not write all those details. They ask you only the function of that hormone. Thyroxine will help in regulating or metabolism. It helps in regulation of metabolism. What metabolism if you want to write it in detail? Carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body. That is enough. You need not write all the details where is thyroid gland present and what is its function? What is the hormone secreted by them? What are the disorders? All these are not required. Just be up to the point while you are writing very short answer questions. That is one mark. Okay. Yes. And next comes let us see few more important questions. 10th question. Name the part of the brain which controls the posture and balance. It is a cerebellum. Cerebellum is the one which controls the posture. So, only that one word is expected from you. Yes. Such questions are asked in few exams. Why is it advised to use iodized salt in our diet? It is related to thyroid gland. You know. Otherwise it leads to a disorder known as goiter. If there is no proper amount of iodine, it leads to goiter. I didn't stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroxins. Deficiency of this hormone results in thyroid gland which can lead to goiter. This is, that is why please mute. Guys, who is that? Bumika, please mute. Yeah. So, we were discussing certain questions. Yeah. Yeah. Mom, is like the meninges covering the spinal cord also or is it only for the brain? Meninges are covering only the cranium. The spinal cord is covered by vertebral column. Ma'am, in our textbook it is there as the meninges protect the C.N.S. that consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Yeah. Basically it, that is mainly it covers the cranium. The meninges only cover the cranium. Okay. So, not the spinal cord. No. Ma'am, could you show from the ninth question? Ninth question, yes. Yeah. Which one of the following actions on touch is an example for chemical control? See, movement of human leg is basically it is controlled by what? So, when you see human leg movement is it has calciotunnel, troponin and tropomycin which will control the movement. Like this is a whole mechanism but here that's, let's say, touch may not plant. It is basically the receptors chemical control. Both of these actions are examples for chemical control but if you take in more when you compare with plant and human leg plant is completely a human control, completely a chemical control. Human leg is controlled by many other like many other factors also like ATP, ATP is controlled like actin, myosin, troponin, tropomycin, calcium. All these factors will come into picture when you take movement in human leg but here in plants it is completely a chemical control. So, that is why the answer is touch sensitive plants. Yes. So, these are few questions for very short answer type. Yeah. Let us see here what is the significance of reflex action. It helps in giving a very quick response that is the importance. Yeah. You can give the examples for chemotropism that is not a problem. See, what are the nissel granules, where are nissel granules found and what is its nature. This is very important. Nissel granules, I told you they are present in a cytone and dendrite, the neuron. Okay. So, basically they are made up of RNAs, trivonucleic acid that is the nature of nissel granules. So, this is how very short answers has to be answered. Like up to the point, you need not write any extra thing for very short answer questions. Yes. It comes to the two markers, short answer type questions. So, what is the synapse? In a neuron cell, how is an electrical impulse created and what is the role of synapse in this contest. So, when such questions are given, first write the, it has two parts. It has three parts basically. What is the synapse? Second part of the question is, neuron cell in the neuron cell how electrical impulse is created and what is the role of synapse in this contest. See, when such questions are given you people write the first part and you will forget the second part. Are you write first and second part? You forget to write third part. When such questions are given, read the question completely and think what has to be written here. Don't just write the first part and come, you will lose the mark. You will get only half a mark. Okay? So, synapse is a junction or a gap between two neurons. Right? Among the 25th question. I am just discussing 21st question. I will go back to that question also. So, what is the synapse? It is a junction between two neurons. Done. In a neuron cell, how is an electrical signal created? Here, the axon terminal of one neuron is close proximity to the dendrite of the second neuron. As I have shown in the picture there, you can see that when a neuron impulse reaches when the nerve impulse reaches the knob of nerve ending of an axon, a tiny amount of chemical substance is released in the synapse. This chemical substance is the neurotransmitters. As I have shown in the diagram here, see here is the nerve ending of brain synaptic neuron. The chemical receptors are present here. Inside, these are released towards the receptor and from the receptor, they are released towards the synapse. From synapse, again it will go towards the post-synaptic membrane. When it goes to the post-synaptic membrane, yes, this chemical substance is called a neurotransmitter. At synapse, the electrical signals converted into chemicals that can easily cross over the gap and pass to the next neuron. Where it again converted into chemical signals. So, that is the importance of synapse here. That is how, that is the answer which is required for this particular answer. So, next question you can write that is the direct question. What is reflex action? All those. Name the hormone secretive. Yes, the 23rd question is also direct. And name and explain the function of hormone secretive pituitary gland in human. Yes, when the pituitary gland is asked, write down all the functions. Hormones also divided into anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. Write the hormone secretive by anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary in detail. That is also a direct question. Yes, 25th question. What are the nasty and curvature moments? Give one example of each. So, nasty movements are non-directional movements which are neither towards or away from the stimulus. Dropping of leaves is just an example. Curvature movements is phototrophism, geotrophism. All these are curvature movements. Okay? So, this is the question asked repeatedly in many of the years. Nasty movements and curvature movements. Very important question. Okay, and write the name and the function of any two parts of human hind brain. Who is that? Meningus is the thin covering of the brain and Yes. Ma'am, the meninges cover the spinal cord and the brain. See, basically, if they ask, how is it protected? Spinal cord is protected by vertebral column. Brain is basically protected by X and cranium. Okay, and see meninges are present in both ways. Protection is given by for the spinal cord, it is given by this vertebral column only. That is what I meant. I didn't tell it is not at all present. It is protected. You asked me how is it protected? Then I answered it is protected by vertebral column. Okay? Yes, Ma'am. Next, let us see your more questions. Yeah, next, all of these are direct questions. What are plant hormones? Write two important functions of oxins. Oxins help in cell division and cell elongation, promotes growth. Plant hormones, you know, chemical substances which are helpful in translocation are regulating the plant physiology. And, yes, in two marks questions, the questions are asked directly. It will be definitions and the functions. And, yeah, in every question, important thing you need to remember is if example is present, if you know the examples, it is like you are requested to write the examples. Even if it is asked or not asked in biology, if you write the examples, it is like extra thing you are writing and you can easily fetch the marks examiner will come to know this particular person to know the concept by seeing your example itself. Don't wait for the examiner or the question to be asked in the question to be asked to write the examples. If you know the examples, please mention those examples also. Underline the examples. Underline the keywords. That is how you can fetch full marks in biology. Okay, so these are the direct questions and, yeah, distinguish between spinal nerves and cranial nerves. Yes, spinal nerves are present in the spinal cord, cranial nerves are present in the brain and number of them, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and cranial nerves are 12 pairs. That is how you can distinguish because they are for two markers, you can write 4 points. So 4 points are here. That is more than enough. Yeah, how does control and coordination takes place in plants? It takes place by phytohormones. Phytohormones examples are those 5 hormones you can tell. In addition environmental factors like water, temperature, light also controls growth and development. Yes, apart from phytohormones. And what is the difference between cerebellum and cerebrum? Yes, cerebrum it is the largest highly developed and prominent part of the brain 80% of it is occupied of the brain is occupied by cerebrum. Guys please do not disturb the class. Mute. And cerebellum it is the second largest part of the brain and it lies in the posterior part of the brain. Cerebrum will come under 4 brain. Cerebellum will come under high end brain. Yes, and the function of cerebrum is to control the thinking process, memory, intelligence whereas cerebellum helps in balance. Balancing the body and posture. That is the difference between cerebrum and cerebellum. And yeah, the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system the difference is, they have told you which controls the emergency and which responds when it is in rest and there are few more things it prepares the body for abnormal situations that is emergency. Nerve fibers connect these ganglia with central nervous system and visual organs whereas the parasympathetic nervous system the original place is in the brain and it connects with the posterior part of the brain ok so these are few points about sympathetic and parasympathetic. In that way, few differences will be asked and yeah, when 3 markers are asked this would be little twisted questions or indirect questions or explanatory questions whereas 1 markers or 2 markers will be direct questions like direct questions will be there so you need not worry about them and here they have given a question like this Mithas father has been advised by doctor to reduce his sugar intake name the disease he is suffering from and name the hormone whose deficiency is identify the gland that secretes it and mention the function of hormone. Basically, they are asking about one particular hormone and whole details of that hormone by seeing the first thing itself you will know that it is diabetes, sugar intake so diabetes the hormone control is insulin and glucagon which increases the level which decreases the level and gland is pancreas so that is how you need to write the answer and second question is direct question they are asking the functions of hormones which is direct again yes how is the brain protected from injury in shock, cerebrospinal fluid and cranium meninges help in protection name two main parts of the brain high in brain that is cerebellum, medulla, oblongate and pons and state their functions you know the functions and nerve cell when the diagram of nerve cell is asked everyone will draw it please draw it with a pencil and mention the label the parts and label the parts towards one side of the book please don't label it towards all the directions all the possible directions okay when you are labeling please make sure that you don't you will not put an arrow mark just put a line like this don't draw an arrow mark put a line and that line should be all the parts has to be labeled towards one side and if you take a paper diagram should be towards the left side and the labeling should be towards the right side and don't draw it very big it looks really odd please draw it in a medium okay medium size don't draw it very small don't draw it very big both of them doesn't look good so all the parts has to be labeled that is how yeah this is the direct question see again here they have asked AB draw and name the part of the neuron and again they have asked where the information is acquired through which information travels as an electrical impulse electrical impulse is travelled outside the neuron like completely like denrite and axon in like core part of the neuron that is cytone and axon carries sorry through which information travels is an electrical impulse please outside the neuron it is completely chemical impulse inside the neuron it is electrical impulse as yeah cytone and axon denrite they carry the electrical impulse whereas synapse will carry axon endings will carry chemical impulse yes again question will be asked to draw the structure of brain so you need not draw all the meninges you need not draw all the lobes you need to show what is the forebrain what is the midbrain what is the hindbrain here they have asked you simply draw the structure of the brain and they have asked draw the knee diagram of human brain and label midbrain and pituitary gland so label only those two parts whatever parts are asked to label label only those two parts okay that is how specific parts will be asked to label yes and this is how the three markers are asked and again direct question three directional moments phototrophism,zeotrophism all those how brain and spinal cord are protected in human one is by cranium one is by vertebral column name the master gland present in the brain and you know pituitary gland see hypothalamus is not given in your textbook hypothalamus is a master gland for pituitary gland but pituitary gland is the master gland which is controls the functions of many parts of the body and yeah next question is also direct this is how you need to write here they have asked what is hydrotrophism describe and experiment to demonstrate hydrotrophism so you need to tell what is hydrotrophism define and show it show the experiment hydrotrophism moment of roots towards the water and also you can write little explanation about this diagram okay so this is about yeah and these are five markers long answer type questions again here also see twisting can be done only in the three markers not only most of the time it is done in three markers in five markers again you can see the direct most of the time direct questions only like important questions what are reflex actions draw the structure of the neuron label the different parts and write the functions of each part and yeah and again reflex arc and they will ask sometimes they will ask only the flow chart sometimes they will ask the diagram see here they have asked suggest six reflex actions of the body explain how the reflex arc is the same in all of them so here this question you have to tell different reflex actions so these are six different actions when we see a speeding car moving towards as we move aside we withdraw our hands when we touch a hot object we withdraw our legs when we step on a prick or thorn that is one more type we close our eyes when there is a direct sunlight falls on our receptors we close our eyes we close our ears and hear into a loud noise we shiver when we feel cold so these are few different actions which are done and how are they regulated in all of them the same mechanism of reflex action is seen receptors sensory neurons will take information towards the spinal cord interneurons will act and give the information back from motor neurons towards the effector this is the mechanism please guys do not disturb the class whoever is doing that mute done next is so such questions will be asked so that is about five markers three markers two markers and one markers so this is about neuron nervous system and endocrine system if you have doubts it is open for you for doubts other five minutes and if you this is the time for you mom yes this is totally out of topic but still can you just explain what briefly in brief what stem cells therapy is stem cells stem cells are self-renewing cells stem cells can be stem cells can form any part of our body the stem cells are different types which are pluripotent multipotent totipotent can form whole human human body whereas pluripotent please mute this pluripotent cells can form except placenta all parts of the body can be formed multipotent they can form like hematopoietic stem cells this can form group of similar cells like blood cells whereas unipotent cells they are specific to one particular organ so these stem cells are helpful for regeneration of organs done next next questions thank you mom done Shreyas what is the discussion going on mom about stem cells therapy we were just talking about how we could clone people and stuff so but there are many ethical issues you cannot clone people yes mom that's what you were talking about if people of course it is debatable but yes they are trying to regenerate few organs like in kidney failure for replacement of kidney they are allowing but not heart have they ever grown a brain or anything see yes brain is done but heart they have grown but again analytical issue for heart because if the heart is replaced in a dying person he can again be alive for again few more years that is against the nature so there is an ethical issue there kidney kidney and liver it is totally accepted but for other organs mom a few years ago I don't really remember when some man had a disease of the heart and the lungs so they replaced his whole heart and lungs with mechanical it is just few days back few days back heart replacement happened first successful heart replacement but then even before that like a long time ago they did that but the man did survive eventually he died many side effects will be there rejections will be there yes mom yes highly rejections will be seen in heart because it is the main control organ but in the name of science I guess we could stop this debate for a while mom but it is very important then people will never die people will be immortal that is against the nature mom is that such a bad thing yeah mom but then immortality there is stuff like cancer and stuff standing in the way because cancer happens only when you are old right it is like a before killing also it is not cancer happens in an old person it happens in a very young boy no of course but that is because of the cataclysmic like add lifestyle of the person which increases the function cancer do not have one vision it has thousands of reasons why you get cancer you cannot debate seeing only one particular reason and one particular mutation it might be because of the sporadic or familial if it is sporadic it has thousands of reasons if it is familial also again it is thousands of reasons so you cannot debate on cancer and stem cells as far as I know we live too far of course I mean there are the problems are meant to be broken mom one person at a time one person at a time yeah so the thing is others please be in mute I will not be able to heal her Veda please mute are these genes which suppress the function of proto oncogen needs cell rate yes yes yes so don't suppress don't they become like less effective over as you age and then yes definitely they will become less effective as you go old but they will not become mutated yes they will be mutated only when there is some defect metabolism defect or environmental defect or heresy and so cancer will be like the default treatment mechanism right by nature because proto oncogen is eventually going to be activated it is not going to be cancerous it is controlled checkpoints are always regulated if checkpoints they are not eventually going to be cancerous their function is becoming less that's all for immortality is achievable but very very difficult at the moment yes yes Veda yes I also have another doubt yes come on is it true that zebra fishes have some kind of fluid that whenever they get hit hard on the eyes in the sea rocks or something like that they lose eyesight but this fluid enables the eye vision again is it true I really don't know about this I will get back to you fine mom I didn't come across this maybe I am not sure oh yeah fine mom yeah others done yeah I will share this ppt with you and also I will share the worksheet with you yes you have any doubt you can come back