 Assalamu alaikum, welcome to virtual university and welcome to your English class. Now, in the last couple of lessons, if you remember, we have been looking at syntax, that is how sentences are constructed and what is it that makes for good effective sentences. We have looked at common errors in sentence construction, errors such as the dangling modifier, the run on sentences and we also looked at certain features of grammar. We looked at pronouns and their antecedents, we looked at subject verb agreement. These are areas that pose problems for learners of English and that is why we concentrated on them. In today's lesson, you will learn about punctuation. Now, punctuation is a vast area. We are only going to concentrate on the comma and the apostrophe. These are two very important items and they cause the greatest problems for students of English. Now, punctuation depends upon grammar. Until you understand how one part of a sentence is related to another, you cannot punctuate efficiently. Commas are not marks added to a sentence, to a completed sentence for artistic effect. They are very much a part of a well written sentence as are correctly placed pronouns and adverbs. Just as when you are writing, you have to place the adverb and the pronoun in the correct place, in the same way you have to place the comma in the right place. In writing, punctuation takes the place of pauses, gestures, rising tone and other such features of speech. Most people make use of some system of vocal punctuation in their speech. When they talk, they pause, sometimes their voice goes up, the pitch goes high and then it goes down in the same way. Some sentences would be clear enough without any punctuation marks. It is not that every sentence needs a comma, but readers have come to expect that sentences that are constructed in the same way will be punctuated in the same way. Therefore, certain rules of punctuation have come into being and sensible writers follow them and the greatest problems in punctuation have to do with the use of the comma and the apostrophe. We shall take up the comma first and then consider the apostrophe afterwards. Now, this does not mean that there are no other marks of punctuation. You are all familiar with the colon. The colon is two full stops, one on top of the other, the semicolon, the comma with a full stop on it, the full stop. Some people call it the period, the punctuation, the question mark, the exclamation mark, the dash, quotation marks, parentheses and square brackets, they are all marks, well known marks of punctuation. But we shall focus on only two as these pose the greatest number of problems for learners of English. The comma indicates a very short pause. Writers may disagree about a few of its uses but most of them agree about the five main uses which we will now consider. Look at the following sentences and insert commas were needed. Look at the first sentence, before leaving home the child's nanny collected a milk bottle, a bag full of diapers, a blanket and a rattle. Now where would you put the commas? Give it a try, the first comma would come after the word bottle, the second would come after the word diapers, the third after blanket, right? Now why? You needed commas to separate these items. The items were a milk bottle, a bag full of diapers, a blanket and a rattle. And when you speak you pause, you will notice you would say the child's nanny collected a milk bottle, a bag full of diapers, a blanket. These are items in a series and the convention is that when you write if there are things in a series then you separate, use a comma to separate one item from the other. Look at the next sentence, although he is 80 my granddad walks 10 miles daily. Now in that sentence where would you have the comma? The comma in that sentence would come after the introductory phrase which would separate the introductory phrase from the rest of the sentence. Now in that sentence the introductory phrase is although he is 80, so you would put a comma after the word 80, right? Look at the third sentence, the cutlery box if I remember correctly is in the big trunk up upstairs. Notice that the phrase if I remember correctly it interrupts the flow of the sentence. So it has to be set off by commas. Verse number four, the paint company had displayed 30 shades of color but the fussy lady still could not find anything to order. Now in that sentence where would you put the comma? Notice that there are two complete thoughts in that sentence. The comma separates two complete thoughts which are connected by the conjunction or joining word but, so you will have the comma after the first complete thought. The paint company displayed 30 shades of color comma but the fussy lady still could not find anything to order. Verse number five, the house agent said it may take you a while to get used to the place. Now in that sentence is there a need for a comma? Yes, if you remember, if you remember looking at printed words, direct quotations are always separated by a comma. The comma separates a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence and over there the house agent said comma it may take you a while to get used to the place, fine. Now those were five main uses of the comma. Let us look at those rules again. Rule number one, rule number one is that a comma will come between items in a series. Number two, a comma will come after introductory material, after a phrase or a clause that is introducing something. Number three, you will have a comma or commas around words that interrupt the flow of a sentence. You will have a comma before it and you will have a comma after those words. Number four, rule number four is that you will insert a comma between complete thoughts which are connected by adjoining or a conjunction, words like and but, right and so. And the fifth rule is that you will use a comma to separate direct quotations from the rest of the sentence. Now a comma often marks a slight pause or a break in a sentence. When you read a sentence aloud, you can often hear the points where slight pauses occur. These pauses or these breaks, they occur at the point where one of the five main comma rules apply. Now over the years, I have noticed that students apply a comma wherever they feel like. No, it is not that. That is not the way to go about when you are writing. In general, use a comma only when a comma rule applies. When you are in doubt about whether or not to use a comma, it is often best to leave it out. Now, we look at these rules one by one, rule number one which said that comma between items, a comma comes between items in a series. The comma is used to separate three or more items in a series, words, phrases, clauses. They may be used in a series, right and we will look at a few examples. Look at the first one. The village women sold pottery, baskets, blankets and silver jewelry. Notice that there are words, series of words, pottery, baskets, blankets, right. You will use a comma over here, a comma after pottery, a comma after baskets, a comma after blankets. Sentence number two, the women spread their wares on the pavements, on doorsteps and especially under trees in the main square. Now, notice here it is phrases, a series of phrases. In the first sentence you had a series of words, now it is a series of phrases. And the comma will come after the word pavements or footpath, doorsteps, right, so two commas in that. The third example, the tribal elders took part in the dance, their women sold pottery and jewelry and their children ran around happily playing games. Now in that sentence there are two clauses and you have to use a comma to separate them. The first one, the first clause is the tribal elders took part in the dance, comma, their women sold pottery and jewelry, comma and their children played around happily playing games. The children ran around, sorry that is the word. Remember that you do not use a comma when the series contains only two items, for instance in the following sentence the college cafeteria now serves sandwiches and cold drinks. Now in that sentence there are just two items and there is no need for you to put a comma over there. Now remember you do not use a comma when the series contains only two items, let us have a short practice of this rule. Insert commas between items in a series. Number one, most countries now recycle newspapers, plastic bottles and aluminum cans, where will you put the comma? After newspapers and bottles. Number two, walking, jogging and bicycling are all inexpensive exercises, where will you put the comma? You will put the comma after the word walking, after the word jogging. Number three, the learner driver went through a red light, steer off the road of the side of the road and ended up on the footpath, where would you put the commas? You would put the first comma after the word light, the second comma after the word road. Now let us look at rule number two, which said that you put a comma after introducing after a phrase that introduces something, information. A comma is used to separate introductory material from the rest of the sentence. Look at the examples, after the mother had given the baby a bath it fell asleep. Now in that sentence, which is the introductory phrase? The introductory clause, after the mother had given the baby a bath. So you will put a comma after the word bath, pushing and shoving each other. That is introductory material and you will separate this from the rest of the sentence by adding a comma after the word other. Look at the next one, with the ceremony of releasing doves in the air, the festival got off to a rousing start. Now in that sentence, with the ceremony of releasing doves in the air, all that bit is introductory material and you will separate it from the rest of the sentence by adding a comma after the word air. Now make a note that the comma may be omitted if the introductory phrase or the clause is so short that there is no likelihood of it being misread. Example as the flames rose the crowd gave a shout. Now in that sentence, the introductory phrase as the flames rose, it is a short introductory phrase, so there is no need for a comma. So at times you can do without a comma, a short practice session. Look at these sentences, see if you can do this on your own. Number one, when the lights went off, the children let out a loud yell, where would you put the comma yes, definitely after the word off. Number two, during the operation the doctor accidentally dropped the medicine bottle on the floor and the introductory phrase is during the operation. So you will have a comma after the word operation. Number three, disappointed by the batsman's performance, the fans threw bottles and fruit peel at the fieldman. Now you will have your comma at the end of the word performance, disappointed by the batsman's performance that is the introductory clause. Number four, after waiting in the queue for two hours, the students were told that the office had run out of admission forms and the introductory phrase over there is after waiting in the queue for two hours. So you will put a comma after the word hours. Rule number three, put a comma around words that interrupt the flow of a sentence. Sentences contain material that interrupt the flow of thought. Such words or group of words should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Example, my mother who is very old complains that I do not give her enough time and you notice that the word who is very old. It interrupts the flow of thought. This is added information. So you always set off this kind of information by commas. You have a comma before the phrase and after the phrase. So one way of testing the interruption of the flow of thought is to read aloud such a sentence. And if you read the sentence aloud, you can hear the words who is very old. It interrupts the flow of thought. Such interruptions often contain information that is less important to the sentence. Example, the owner of the house grumbling angrily came out of the house to claim his dog and notice the word grumbling angrily. It is added on extra information but not necessary. So this has to be set off by commas. Another example, the college which was built in 1937 needs a face left. And in this sentence which was built in 1937 is interrupts the flow of thought. It is less important. It is set off by commas. The next one, the college auditorium though is in fairly good condition and over there it is the word though that interrupts the flow of thought. Another practice session for that rule that you have learnt just now. You insert commas around the interrupting words in each of the following sentences. Sentence number one, the house built of white stone was finally completed in 1890. And you would have commas after the word house and after the word stone. Number two, the park 40 acres of prime land provides a fine view for the surrounding buildings. And over there 40 acres of prime land that is interrupting the flow of thought. So you would set off that phrase with commas. And number three, the scenery of Switzerland which resembles that of Kashmir inspired him to write his novel and it would be the phrase which resembles that of Kashmir. That would be set off by commas. Rule number four which said that comma, insert a comma between complete thoughts which are joined by a word, by a conjunction. Look at this example and these joining words are and, but and so. Multan is one of the oldest cities in Pakistan and it is also one of the most interesting. Right? Now over there there are two sentences, two complete thoughts and it is the word and that is joining them. So you will put a comma after Pakistan. Number two, some historians claim that Uch Sharif another city in Punjab is older but all agree that the Indus valley has been continuously inhabited for thousands of years. Now in that sentence some historians claim that Uch Sharif another city in Punjab is older that is one complete thought and the joining word is but. So you will separate the two sentences which are joined by the word but with the comma after older. Another example perhaps you have read about this old city or perhaps you have even visited Uch Sharif again two complete thoughts and it is the joining word or right. So you will put a comma after city in the next sentence money may not buy happiness but it definitely makes misery bearable and you would put a comma after happiness. Right? Let us look at now again I want you to note that you do not add a comma just because a sentence contains the word and but or so. A comma is used only when the joining word comes between two complete thoughts. Each of those thoughts must have its own subject and verb. Look at this example Shama spent the morning in the college and then she went to the civil secretariat. Now in that sentence notice the comma comes after college it is a complete thought it has a subject and a verb of its own. Shama is the subject spent is the verb and in the second half and then she went in the second part of the sentence she is the subject and went is the verb. So in that situation notice you have a comma look at the second one Shama spent the morning in the college and then went to the civil secretariat. Now in that sentence there is no comma why because the second thought is not a complete thought because it does not have its own subject right. Let us have some more practice in this look at these four sentences. The first one the cricket team has lost five matches in a row but they are as popular as ever where will you put the comma simple after the word row. Number two Kosser was not wearing her reading glasses so she could not read the fine print in the dictionary and you would insert the comma after glasses. Number three I used to be able to play the sitar very well but now I am out of practice and the comma would come after the word well. Therefore it is not a festival precisely nor is it a village fair so where would you have the comma it would be after the word precisely and the last rule which says that a comma must come before a direct quotation example the coach shouted move fast you will insert the comma after the word shouted another example the students said do you mind if I ask a question and the comma will be after the word said another example the customer grumble to the waiter this tea tastes like ditch water and you will have the comma after the word waiter before the actual spoken words are written note when the comma comes at the end of directly quoted words it is included within the quotation marks when the comma comes at the end of directly quoted words it is included within the quotation marks example after this class whispered one student to her friend let us go to the cafeteria right now I hope you have had well practice number five insert commas to set off quoted material in the following sentences number one we are ready to leave said a cheerful voice on the bus mic and over there you would have a comma after the word leave this book complaint the student to this bookstore owner is 20 rupees cheaper at the other store mind you the comma will come after the word book and it will come after the word owner and in the last one the cashier said we do not take checks so you will have the comma after the word said now we will review what you learnt right now see if you can recognize which comma rule applies to each of the sentences then you identify the place with the comma or commas are required is required or are required look at the five rules they are there on the screen for you all five of them are there comma between items in a series B comma after introductory material C comma after interrupting words D comma before a word that joins two complete thoughts and comma with direct quotations look at these sentences now in sentence number one glaring around the room the boss demanded silence which rule is this one is it rule a b c d or e simple it is rule B and the comma will come after the word room sentence number two I heard a horn blowing so I glanced up at my rear view mirror which rule is this it is rule D and you will have the comma after the words blowing I heard a con a horn blowing comma so I glanced up at my rear view mirror number three the professor would not leave the house without his hat his briefcase and his umbrella which rule is this which rule will apply over here the rule is items in a series so it has to be rule number a and the comma the commas will come after the word hat the word briefcase right and of course a full stop after umbrella number four the city children unused to the darkness of the forest found it hard to sleep which rule is this which rule would to apply over here and it is rule number C comma after the word children comma after the word forest and number five the man whispered listen very carefully to what I have to say and this is rule number which rule applies over here its rule number e comma separates the coated words from the rest of the sentence so you will have the comma after the word whispered now that was the comma you had practice in it you learn the five rules and you had enough practice now we are looking at the apostrophe the use of the apostrophe look at the following sentences and see if you can spot the word that needs the apostrophe number one it is impossible to see stars in daylight now over there you will have an apostrophe in the first word its which is a contraction of the word it is the apostrophe takes the place of the letter I which has been dropped it is impossible meaning it is impossible so over there it is being used as contraction number two the judge cannot hear the cases until next month and you notice that the word count you will put a apostrophe between the letter N and T is the contraction of the word cannot the apostrophe shows that two letters N and O have been left out number three no one likes the college principles new attendance rules now over there the apostrophe with the S now over there you will say the apostrophe S shows that the new rules belong to the principle the apostrophe comes after the last letter of the word principle and over there the word likes does not take an apostrophe because it is not showing possession in this sentence in the word the apostrophe after principle shows possession whose rules the principles new rules but not the word likes why because likes is a verb it is not possessive it is not showing possession right look at number four the sandwiches at greens restaurant are the best in town now the apostrophe comes after the S in greens the apostrophe after the S shows that the greens own the restaurant right the apostrophe is a punctuation mark with two main purposes number one it is used in contraction in a contraction showing that one or more letters have been left out of her word number two it is also used to show possession that something belongs to someone or something now we look at the apostrophe in contractions a contraction is formed when two words are combined to make a new word the apostrophe takes the place of the letter all letters that are omitted when forming the contraction here are a few common contractions I am becomes I am it is becomes its does not becomes doesn't do not becomes don't she will becomes she'll you will becomes you'll you would becomes you'd will not becomes won't now contractions are commonly used in everyday speech and writing they are not slang some people in Pakistan they think that using contractions is wrong no it is perfectly alright I'll read out a passage and you notice how frequently words are contracted would you like to go to the movies tonight there's a film I've been wanting to see but it hasn't been in Lahore until now you've been wanting to see it too haven't you shouldn't we ask the others to go with us they are always saying that they have plenty of time don't they now you notice that over there in the passage that I read to you these were actual words spoken by someone and in speech contractions are normal and even in writing so please do not have this wrong notion in your head that if you use contractions you are using wrong English they are perfectly correct now there are a few contractions that cause problems and there are four pairs of words that can cause problems to students and these words are there and there they are meaning their T H E Y apostrophe R E meaning they are and the other word is their T H E I R which means belonging to them the other pair of words is its and it is one means it is or it has and the other means belonging to your and your one is a contraction you are and the other is your meaning belonging to you and number four the fourth one is whose meaning who is and whose W H O S E meaning belonging to whom now notice how each of these words is used in the sentences that follow the first one they are upset about the damage done to their new car car T H E I R is their car belonging to them number two it is a shame that the college fail to honor its own faculty and over there the first it is a contraction the second one shows possession number three your parents your parents said you are their favorite child and your meaning belonging to you and the second your is a contraction for the word you are the last one who is the person whose care whose car number whose car number plate is missing and the first one is who is it is a contraction whose whose the second one shows possession whose car number plate is missing now we look at the apostrophe to show possession in the following phrases the apostrophe and s are used to show possession of singular or plural nouns which do not end in s you have this is a man's job these are men's jobs children's gains are not always simple my sister-in-law's great love is shopping she reads Huxley's s's in the case of plural nouns ending in s the apostrophe is used alone example she rang the Shah's doorbell over there you do not add n s you just use the apostrophe by itself the two dogs tracks were visible in the snow right and there is an apostrophe after dogs but you do not add n s number three the ladies toilet or washroom was locked and ladies is plural so you do not add an s you only use the apostrophe by itself right now we will look as I said there are always exceptions when we do not use an apostrophe in plural and verbs the possessive and plural forms of words are often very confusing remember that a plural is formed simply by adding an s to a word no apostrophe is used look at the following sentences the following sentence to see which words are plural in which are possessive Samina's new boots have cold and buckles Samina's new boots boots and buckles are plural that is more than one boot buckle plus Samina's the word with the apostrophe plus s is Samina's that shows possession that is Samina owns the boots also many verbs which end with an s example he owns the cinema owns is a verb so do not put an apostrophe in a verb remember that a quick practice session add an apostrophe in these sentences the head of the department's mood is much better after he gives out the assignments for the day now in that sentence you have departments departments is apostrophe s the head belonging to the department gives is a verb assignments are plural so just do not add an apostrophe wherever there is an s number two this year's new television shows are much worse than the programs of last year over here years is has an apostrophe s year apostrophe s which means belonging to this year while the word shows is plural and programs is also plural so you do not need apostrophes with those two words number three mind your peas and queues over there you will have to put an apostrophe between P and s and Q and s now let us review this part of the lesson the second half identify the correct answer a contraction is two words combined into one is it one word is it a possessive or is it a plural statement number two in the contraction sheed the apostrophe three choices number a shows that she possesses something b it takes the place of w u l c it indicates a plural and the correct one is b it the contraction sheed takes the place of she word number three to make a possessive an apostrophe plus an s is usually added a to the name of the owner b whatever is owned which one is the correct choice it is a to make a possessive an apostrophe plus an s is usually added to the name of the owner and number four an apostrophe is not needed in a a contraction b a plural so over there the correct answer would be b an apostrophe is not needed in a plural right so that was a review of the second half of the lesson which was about apostrophes now with that we come to the end of today's lesson in today's lesson you learnt about punctuation two areas of punctuation and the two punctuation marks were the comma and the apostrophe and you looked at the problem areas in punctuation and these are skills that are required for effective writing next time we are going to move on to writing so till next time Allah Hafiz see you next time.