 Lessons 1-10 from Greek Lessons, showing how useful and how easy it is for everyone to learn Greek by W.H. Morris. Read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, Volume 1. Read by Nicholas James Bridgewater. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Preface. What is the use of Greek? It has three very important uses. First, there are so many words in English, and new ones are daily being introduced, derived from Greek, that some knowledge of the Greek language is an essential of a sound English education, and it is, besides, of the greatest use in learning Latin and modern languages. Second, quote, there never was such a language to educate the mind of man, end quote. It is, quote, the most subtle and powerful language that ever flowed from the tongue of man, end quote. And yet it is, quote, an easy language, end quote. The Intelligent Study of Scripture by Dean Alfred. Third, above all, it is the language in which, before all others, God chose to reveal his will to us, the language of the New Testament. Quote, no other language will ever express the meaning of God's spirit as it may be seen to be expressed and known by those who read the New Testament in its original Greek. In this, the English tongue totally fails, end quote. Thus, to the everyday man, to the scholar and especially the Christian, Greek is of practical value. I have endeavored therefore to produce a book suited to these three classes. Firstly, a book for those who may not, perhaps, have much time to give to the subject, but who merely study it to learn English. Secondly, at the same time, a book all in the right direction for those who wish to know more of that, quote, wonderful language, end quote. Thirdly, a book especially adapted to those who desire to read the New Testament in the original Greek, and the Greek version of the Old Testament, from which our Lord and his apostles quoted. Preface to the third edition. This edition contains such slight alterations in the grammatical arrangement as were necessary to bring it into harmony with the public school Latin Prima and its companion book, Parry's Greek Grammar, without in any way destroying the original plan of the work. Great care has been taken to bring prominently before the eye the rich and varied terminology of the Greek language, and at the same time to connect it in the mind with the English equivalents. For this purpose, the Greek inflections and their corresponding English signs have been printed side by side in bold type. The student will thus be enabled readily to distinguish the Greek inflection from its stem, a very important point, and will learn to regard the inflection not merely as the sign of a certain tense or case, but generally as the representative of some English word or words. When terminations have by this means acquired in the mind a distinct signification, they will immediately suggest to the English mind the same idea that they would convey to the mind of the native Greek without any preliminary process of reasoning about cases or tenses. The adjectives and substantives in the vocabularies are arranged according to their gender in three columns. The genders of words will thus be learned intuitively without any effort, and a more permanent impression will be made on the memory by the locality of a word in the left, centre, or right column than by the easily forgotten m, f, and n. The verbs of each class are grouped together in distinct vocabularies so as to familiarise the ear with the rhythm of each conjugation separately, and thus fix it firmly in the mind. Some English words derived from the Greek words in the preceding vocabularies are appended to the exercises. These answer the twofold purpose of teaching the true and exact meaning of many English words, and of forming a key to remembering the Greek words from which they are derived. In the hand of an intelligent teacher they would be made a very interesting study, and the student will find, from the very beginning, that Greek is something practically useful. The accents have been added in this edition in deference to suggestions made to the author. The author desires to express his obligations for many valuable suggestions to N. Pocock, Esquire, M.A., E. Wolford, Esquire, M.A., and to the Reverend E. St. John Parry, M.A., whose excellent grammar is recommended as being the best adapted to succeed this work. Clifton House, Ealing Road, near Brentford, AP, 1874 On the method of using this book, one, the vocabularies, grammatical forms, rules, etc., should be committed to memory before attempting to translate the exercises. Two, in learning grammatical forms it will be found advantageous to repeat the inflections in large type, without as well as with the stems, and to learn the adjectives in the same way as their kindred substantives, taking each gender separately. Three, frequent practice should be given in declining and conjugating. For very young learners, the lessons may be divided into two or more portions, one of which should consist entirely in committing to memory and declining the words at the heads of the exercises. Four, repetition is recommended every 10 or 20 lessons, according to age. The object to be kept in view being rather to learn thoroughly than to proceed quickly. Three, Greek lessons, one, the alphabet, alpha, a, vita, the, Rama, r, delta, the, epsilon, e, zita, z. Ita, i, theta, jota, j, kappa, k, lamva, l, mi, m, ni, n, xi, xa, omicron, o, pi, p, r, r, sigma, s, taf, t, y, i, fi, f, hi, ch, ch, psps, omega, o. Four, write the names of the letters in Greek characters. Two, the vowels are, alpha, epsilon, ita, jota, omicron, epsilon, omega. The consonants are divided into labials, p sounds, pi, vita, fi. Gutterals, k sounds, kappa, Rama, hi, dentals, t sounds, taf, delta, theta. Semi vowels, lamva, mi, ni, r, chord liquids, and sigma. Double letters, zita, xi, psi. Repeat first the English sounds, then the Greek names. A, alpha, l, lamva, f, fi, z, zita, m, mi, ch, hi, i, ita, r, rama, n, ni, psi, theta, l, delta, x, xi, o, omega, i, ita, o, omicron, i, jota, z, zita, p, pi, a, alpha, k, kappa, hi, ita, r, r, v, vita, l, lamva, f, theta, s, sigma, r, rama, m, mi, i, jota, t, taf, l, delta, m, ni, k, kappa, r, hi, i, y, e, y, zita, x, xi, s, sigma, p, pi, f, fi, s, sigma, r, r, ps, psi, o, omega, 3, the diphthongs are thus pronounced. Alif, jota, e, alef, y, af, av, epsilon, jota, i, epsilon, y, f, ev, ita, y, ev, omicron, jota, i, omicron, y, u, y, jota, i, an jota subscript o, written under a vowel is silent, as in aim, The rough breathing over a vowel or second letter of a diphthong is equal to an h placed before it, as ho, hi. The soft breathing denotes the absence of the h sound. A breathing is placed over every vowel diphthong or ro that begins a word. There are three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. These do not affect the pronunciation. Read the following words. Ji, earth, ji, niki, victory, niki, onos, as, onos, likos, wolf, likos, rodon, rose, rodon, vivlion, book, vivlion, otti, because, otti, ora, hour, ora, risa, root, risa, ergon, work, ergon, vendron, tree, vendron, filos, friend, filos, thira, door, thira, karpos, fruit, karpos, doxa, glory, doxa, machi, battle, machi, arthos, bread, arthos, psixi, soul, psixi, ego, ay, ego, inos, wine, inos, ios, san, ios, naftis, sailor, naftis, ne, yes, utos, this, utos, eff, well, eff, vilos, fearful, vilos, for, good, beautiful, masculine, kalos, kalos, feminine, kali, kali, neuter, galon, galon, bad, wicked, masculine, kakos, kakos, feminine, kaki, kaki, neuter, kakon, kakon, wolf, masculine, likos, likos, voice, sound, feminine, forni, forni, rose, neuter, rodon, rodon, masculine, onos, onos, earth, feminine, ye, ye, tree, neuter, vindron, vindron. The indefinite article A or N must be supplied when necessary in the English and the adjective taken before the substantive. Rule one, an adjective agrees with its substantive in gender. likos, kakos, kali, forni, vindron, kakon, ye, kaki, onos, kakos, rodon, galon, ye, kali, forni, kaki, vindron, galon, onos, kalos, give the derivation of rododendron, euphony, phonetic, ge, in geography, geology, etc. five, small, little, masculine, mikros, mikros, feminine, mikra, mikra, neuter, mikron, mikron, long, far, distant, masculine, mikros, mikros, feminine, mikra, mikra, neuter, mikron, mikron, seat, masculine, thronos, throneos, seat, masculine, throneos, door, feminine, firah, firah, child, neuter, deknon, deknon, house, masculine, ikos, ikos, liar, feminine, lira, lira, egg, neuter, on, on, mikros, throneos, mikra, lira, on, mikron, ikos, macros, firah, mikra, deknon, mikron, forni, mikra, lira, kali, throneos, kalos, ikos, Kakos, vindron, mikron, gi, makra. English words derived from the Greek change epsilon into y and kappa into c, give the derivation of throne, liar, omicron, micro in microscope, microcosm, etc., six, the, masculine, or, feminine, e, neuter, door, faithful, true, masculine, pistos, feminine, pisti, pisti, neuter, piston, slave, masculine, doulos, doulos, bride, goddess, feminine, nymphi, nymphi, little book, role, neuter, vivlion, vivlion, master, lord, masculine, kirios, kirios, justice, feminine, diki, diki, gift, present, neuter, doron, doron. Rule two, when the article stands before the substantive only, the adjective is a predicate, and the copula is or are, must frequently be supplied, as, odoulos, pistos, or, pistos, odoulos, the slave is faithful. Rule three, the article is sometimes repeated before the adjective to add emphasis or force to it, as, odoulos or pistos, the faithful slave, i.e. the faithful one, or, likos, micros, i. cali, foni, i. diki, i. pisti, to diblion, micron, pistos, o kirios, i. gi, i. cali, i. pisti, foni, i. thira, micra, calon, torrodon, i. cali, lira, toon, to calon, calon, vivlion, i. nymphi, cali, odoulos, o kakos, to doron, calon, diki, pisti, micron, doron. Give the derivation of Bible, nymph. Seven, there are three numbers, singular, plural, and dual. The dual is used of two only, but the plural commonly takes its place. The auxiliary verb, i. me, i. am, indicative mood, present tense. Singular, first person, i. me, i. am, i. me. Second person, i. thou art, i. Third person, s. d. he, she, it, is, s. d. Plural, first person, s. men, we are, s. men. Second person, s. d. ye, are, s. d. Third person, i. si, they, are, i. si. Dual, first person, wanting. Second person, eston, ye, too, are. Eston, eston, they, too, are, eston. Ne is added to esti, esti, when they are followed by a vowel. The stops in Greek are the same as in English, except the colon or semicolon, and the note of interrogation. Error, I. Error. Si, thou, si. Tis, ti. Who, tis, ti. Ti, why, ti. Tis, ti. A certain someone, tis, ti. Uh, uke, before a vowel. Uh, before a rough breathing. Not. Rule four, the verb i. me takes the same case after it as before it. Doulos, i. mi. Kirios, i. Pistos, esti. Ti, estmen. Si, tis, i. Ego, kirios, i. mi. Si, doulos, i. Ti, kalon, esti. Torodon, esti, kalon. Doulos, tis, kakos, esti. Tis, diki, esti, pisti. Esti, nithira, mikra. Tis, pistos, esti. Tis, estin, o kirios, o pistos. Mikros, uke, i. mi. Uk, isi, teknon, olikos, kakos, esti. Uk, o, o, nos. Eight imperfect tense of i. mi. Singular first person, i.n, I was, i.n. Second person, istha, thou wast, istha. Third person, i.n, he was, i.n. First person, i.n. Imen, we were, i.men. Second person, ite, ye were, ite. Third person, isan, they were, isan. Doul first person wanting, second person, itin, ye too were, itin. Third person, itin, they too were, itin. Pu, were, pu. Opu, were, opu. Eki, the, eki. Othe, here, othe. Ke, and also, ke. Ke, ke, both, and ke, ke. Ghar, fo, ghar. Idu, behold, here, am, is, ar. Idu. Rule five, two or more substantives singular require a plural verb, as, pui si no kirios ke o doulos, where are the lord and the slave, pu esti no doulos o kakos? Uk estin othe, tis eki esti, idoo ego. Ti othe este, pu isan olikos ke oonos, eki uk isi, opu estin olikos, eki esti ke oonos. To vivlion doron micron esti. To rodon micron ke galon in. Idu o doulos pistos ghar esti. Ke o kirios ke o doulos isan othe. Future tense of imi. Singular first person. Esome. I shall be. Esome. Second person. Esi. Or i. Thou wilt be. Esi. I. Third person. Este. He will be. Este. Plural first person. Esomitha. We shall be. Esomitha. Second person. Esi. Thee. Yee will be. Esi. Thee. Third person. Esonde. They will be. Esonde. Doul first person. Esomitha. We too shall be. Esomitha. Second person. Esi. Thou. Yee too will be. Esi. Thou. Third person. Esi. Thou. They too will be. Esi. Thou. New. Masculine. Genos. Genos. Feminine. Geni. Neuter. Genon. Genon. White. Masculine. Lefkos. Lefkos. Feminine. Lefki. Lefki. Neuter. Lefkon. Lefkon. Bread. Loaf. Masculine. Arthos. Arthos. Robe. Dress. Feminine. Stoli. Stoli. Little lamb. Neuter. Arnion. Arnion. Wine. Masculine. Inos. Inos. Village. Feminine. Gomi. Gomi. Work. Deed. Neuter. Ergon. Ergon. O Arthos. Genos. In. Isdoli. Lefki. Ke Kali. Este. To Arnion. Lefkon. In. Pueestino. Inos. O Lykos. Uk. Esti. Lefkos. Idu. O Lykos. Ke To Arnion. Tu Ergon Kakoneste. Gomi. Tismacra. In. Pistos. Esome. Eki. Esonde. Ti. Eseste. Imi. Ke In. Ke Esome. Ode. Esometha. O Pugar. Esti. O Kirios. Eki. Este. Ke O Dulos. Tsen. Holy Pure. Masculine. Ayos. Ayos. Feminine. Aya. Aya. Neuter. Ayon. Ayon. Just Righteous. Masculine. Vigeos. Vigeos. Feminine. Vigea. Vigea. Neuter. Vigeon. Vigeon. Song of Praise. Masculine. Imnos. Imnos. Heart. Feminine. Gardia. Gardia. Apple. Fruit. Neuter. Milon. Milon. Law. Masculine. Nomos. Nomos. Our Time. Feminine. Ora. Ora. Oath. Neuter. Orkion. Orkion. Life. Masculine. Vigeos. Vigeos. Soul. Life. Feminine. Psyhi. Psyhi. Wild Beast. Neuter. Firion. Firion. Ayos. Imnos. Kaki. Ikaardia. Ovíos. Makros. Uk. Esti. Ti esti. Nip. Psyhi. Idú. Ode. To Divlion. To Ayon. Onomos. Ayos. Esti. Ke Dikeos. To Orkion. Ayon. Este. Pú esti. Nidiki. Dikeos. Esi. Olicos. Tirion. Kakon. Esti. Ode. Milon. Kalon. Ti sora esti. Ayos. Ke Dikeos. Estin. Okyrios. Give the derivation of hour. Hymn. Psyhi. Economy. Icos. Nomos. Bio in Biography. End of lessons one to ten from Greek lessons showing how useful and how easy it is for everyone to learn Greek by W. H. Morris. How to Learn a Foreign Language by Edward Granville-Brown from chapter one introductory of A Year Amongst the Persians. Read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection volume one. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Now, having unburdened my mind on this matter, I will recount briefly how I came to devote myself to the study of Oriental languages. I was originally destined to become an engineer, and therefore, partly because, at any rate sixteen years ago, the teaching of the modern side was still in a most rudimentary state, partly because I most eagerly desired emancipation from a life entirely uncongenial to me. I left school at the age of fifteen and a half with little knowledge and less love of Latin and Greek. I have, since then, learned better to appreciate the value of these languages and to regret the slenderness of my classical attainments. Yet the method, according to which they are generally taught in English public schools, is so unattractive and, in my opinion, so inefficient that had I been subjected to it much longer, I would probably have come to loathe all foreign languages and to shudder at the very sight of a grammar. It is a good thing for the student of a language to study its grammar when he has learned to read and understand it, just as it is a good thing for an artist to sketch a figure or catch the expression of a face. But for one to seek to obtain mastery over a language by learning rules of accidents and syntax is as though he should regard the dissecting room as the single and sufficient portal of entrance to the academy. How little a knowledge of grammar has to do with facility in the use of language is shown by the fact that comparatively few have studied the grammar of that language over which they have the greatest mastery. While amongst all the Latin and Greek scholars in this country, those who could make an extemporary speech dash off an impromptu note or carry on a sustained conversation in either language are in a small minority. Then, amongst other evil things connected with it is the magnificent contempt for all non-English systems of pronunciation which the ordinary public school system of teaching Latin and Greek encourages. It is granted that the pronunciation of Greek is very different in the Athens of today from what it was in the time of Plato or Euripides, and that Cicero would not understand or would understand with difficulty the Latin of the Vatican, Does it follow that both languages should be pronounced exactly like English of all spoken tongues the most anomalous in pronunciation? What should we think of a Chinaman who, because he was convinced that the pronunciation of English in the 14th century differed widely from that of the 19th deliberately elected to read Chaucer in the accent and intonation of Chinese? If Latin and Greek alone were concerned it would not so much matter, but the influence of this doctrine of Pan Anglican pronunciation too often extends to French and German as well. The spirit engendered by it is finally displayed in these two sayings which I remember to have heard repeated. Anyone can understand English if they choose, provided you talk loud enough, always mistrust an Englishman who talks French like a Frenchman. Apart from the general failure to invest the books read with any human, historical or literary interest, or to treat them as expressions of the thoughts, feelings and aspirations of our fellow creatures. Instead of as grammatical treadmills there is another reason why the public school system of teaching languages commonly fails to impart much useful knowledge of them. When any intelligent being who is a free agent wishes to obtain an efficient knowledge of a foreign language as quickly as possible, how does he proceed? He begins with an easy text and first obtains the general sense of each sentence and the meaning of each particular word from his teacher. By default of a teacher he falls back on the best available substitute, namely a good translation and a dictionary. Looking out words in a dictionary is, however, mere waste of time if their meaning can be ascertained in any other way so that he will use this means only when compelled to do so. To ascertain the meaning of each word he will note it down either in the margin of the book or elsewhere so that he may not have to ask it or look it out again. Then he will read the passage which he has thus studied over and over again if possible allowed so that tongue, ear and mind may be simultaneously familiarized with the new instrument of thought and communication of which he desires to possess himself until he perfectly understands the meaning without mentally translating it into English and until the foreign words no longer strange evoke in his mind not their English equivalents but the ideas which they can note. This is the proper way to learn a language and it is opposed at almost every point to the public school method which regards the use of cribs as a deadly sin and substitutes passing and construing for reading and understanding. Notwithstanding all this I am well aware that the advocates of this method have in their armory another and more potent argument. A boy does not go to school say they to learn Latin and Greek but to learn to confront disagreeable duties with equanimity and to do what is distasteful to him with cheerfulness. To this I have nothing to say it is unanswerable and final. If boys are sent to school to learn what the word disagreeable means and to realize that the most acute misery and that the most assiduous labor if it be not wisely directed does not necessarily secure the attainment of the object ostensibly aimed at. Then indeed does the public school offer the surest means of attaining this end. The most wretched day of my life except the day when I left college was the day I went to school. During the earlier portion of my school life I believe that I nearly fathomed the possibilities of human misery and despair. I learned then what I am thankful to say I have unlearned since to be a pessimist a misanthrope and a cynic. And I have learned since what I did not understand then that to know by rote a quantity of grammatical rules is in itself not much more useful than to know how often each letter of the alphabet occurs in paradise lost. Or how many separate stones went to the building of the great pyramid. Many of my readers even of those who may be inclined to agree with me as to the desirability of modifying the teaching of our public schools will blame me for expressing myself so strongly. The value of a public school education in the development of character cannot be denied and in the teaching also great improvements have I believe been made within the last 10 or 15 years. But as far as my own experience goes I do not feel that I have spoken at all too strongly. The End of How to Learn a Foreign Language by Edward Granville Brown Recording by Nicholas James Bridgewater Recorded in London, England Gender Section 11 Every noun has one of three genders which are most easily remembered by learning each noun with the definite article the The gender is partly natural partly grammatical. By the natural gender names of male beings such as And those of young creatures such as The child are neuter. But The wife is also neuter. Section 12 By grammatical gender names of things are not only neuter But also masculine and feminine. Se stan Se fort The foot Note that all nouns ending in a are masculine. Section 13 Compound nouns follow the gender of their last element as in The goldsmith Formed from Number Section 14 The definite article has in the plural Nouns have a variety of endings in the plural which depend partly on their gender. For all masculine take an in the plural All feminine nouns in a together with that are have the same plural ending Nouns that take an in the plural are called weak. All other nouns are called strong. The commonest plural ending of strong masculine nouns is Se ende have plurals kiningas andas. Se dai has plural dagas with vowel change. Section 16 Most strong neuters take u in the plural or else remain unchanged. Thus that skip ship. That rike kingdom rule sovereignty. That wapen weapon have plurals Tha skipu Tha rike Tha wapnu While that folk nation That hoose That weave have plurals Tha folk Tha hoose Tha weave Section 17 Most strong feminins take a in the plural. Thus seo dad Seo hand Seo caster city have plurals Tha dadda Tha handa Tha castra Section 18 Some plurals are formed by vowel change. Se man Tha men Se fot Tha feet Seo bok The book Tha beik Seo burg Fortress city Tha buri There are also other irregular plurals. Case Section 19 All the nouns hitherto given in this chapter are in the nominative case. We have seen that weak masculine nouns have in the nominative singular the ending a. Se mona. Weak feminins and neuters the ending e. Seo kirike That aare. Nouns ending in u and o are always strong. Such as Se sunu Seo duru Plurals Tha suna Tha dura Seo ildo Age old age Compare ald old Seo meniyo Multitude crowd Compare mani many Note that these feminins in o are generally indeclinable as in the plural Tha meniyo. The following are pronouns in the nominative. Ik i Thu He Hit it Hell she Plurals we We Ye Ye He Further examples Ik eom her I am here Hell is mean motor Hit is li til hoos Ye weef Section 20 The subject of a sentence and words agreeing with it are put in the nominative. I am the king's hunter. Nouns have three other cases. The accusative, dative, and genitive. Included under the common name oblique. Section 21 The accusative of the definite article is masculine thone. Feminine Tha. The neuter That and the plural all genders Tha being the same as the nominative. Note that in all words the accusative is the same as the nominative in the neuter singular. That are And in the plural Tha Section 22 The accusative is the direct object case serving to show that a noun word completes the meaning of a transitive verb. Section 23 Weak masculine and feminine nouns have accusative singulars in an. The same as the plural nominative. Ik ye heer the thone naman. We Ye Sa Woon Tha sunnan. Antho ne mounan. Section 24 Strong masculine as well as neuter nouns have the accusative the same as the nominative in the singular as well as the plural. He greit the thone kuning. Section 25 Some strong feminants have the accusative singular the same as the nominative while others take e. Ik ye seach Tha undad. He ye Sa Woon Tha chastre Theoran. Section 26 The accusatives of the pronouns given above are me, me, Thee, Thee, Hine, Him, Hit the same as the nominative, It. He, her Plurals Us, Us, Elw, You, He, Them. Observe that the modern English forms Him, Her, Them are historically datives not accusatives. Compare further Hine with Thone He, Her With Tha chastre. The following are further examples Kantstuthisne kraft Ik kan Hine Jesichstutha chastre Ik he ye seo He ye seo Section 27 The accusative is further used to express extent of space and duration of time. Ik elm el na wey yearo He woon odon thaer langetid Section 28 Hence some prepositions which express extent or motion govern the accusative such as yeond throughout imb, around, about yeond tha helle seo sunne irnth imb tha erdan Section 29 The dative of Se, That and the plural Tha is Tham Similarly, the dative of He, Hit and the plural He is Him Him, It, Them Compare modern English to Him to Them Note also that the dative plural ending of nearly all nouns is Um The dative of Seo is Thare Similarly, the dative of He is Hire Compare modern English to Her The pronouns Ich, Thu Plurals We, Ye have the dative the same as the accusative Me, Thumi Thee, Thu, Thee Us, Thu, Us Eu, Thu, You Section 30 The dative is the indirect object case and often corresponds to the modern English Thu in Give it to Him Similar to Sele, Me, Havok Huat, Skel, Ik, Finum Yebrothrum, Sellan Sele, Him, Horus Section 31 Weak nouns have dative singular in Un Good, Selde Tham, Monan Leocht Section 32 Most strong nouns have A in the dative singular Slap, Bith, Dade, Ye, Ly, Kost He, Ansuaro, De, Hire, Thus Seo, Ansuaro, Ye, Ly, Kode, Thare, Kwene He, Sint, Tham, Kining, Ye, Trewe Section 33 The dative is used not only with verbs of giving to, speaking to and with words expressing nearness to, likeness to being agreeable to faithful to, and so on but also with many other words expressing benefiting and injuring affecting and influencing in various ways He, Lum, Man, Num, Nyt He, Him, On, Bestow He, Cherf, Him, That, Havok, Of He, Cherf, Him, That, Havok, Of He, Cherf, Him, That, Havok, Of He, Cherf, Him, On, Bestow He, Cherf, Him, On, Bestow For the instrumental dative See section 52 Section 34 Many propositions govern the dative, such as After After, B, by, along, concerning For, For, because of Mid, With To, To After, His, Daye He, El, De, bithare strate, guacchian forthelvum, se cunning sat mirhis eldormannum, he quath totham cunninge. Section 35. Some prepositions govern both the dative and accusative, such as on, in, on, over, over, under, under. When motion or extension is implied, they generally take the accusative. Se mangere a star on his skip, fa bermas hangiath overthone mere. With the dative, they generally express rest. Se fiskere is uthe on thare sa on anumbate. Section 36. The genitive corresponds sometimes to apostrophe s, mans, sometimes to of, of the man. Section 37. The genitive of se and that is thas. Similarly, the genitive of he and hit it is his. The genitive of se is thare, the same as the dative. Similarly, the genitive of he, she, is hire. The genitive of the plural tha is thaara. Similarly, the genitive of he, they, is hira. The pronouns ik, thu, plural we, ye, have genitives mean of me, thien of the, ure of us, ewer of you. The genitives of pronouns are used also as possessives. He sin hira hlav de ye trewe. The following are examples of their use as genitives. Ewer naan. He of slo, hira, thrii ti. Section 38. Weak nouns have genitive singular an, the same as the other oblique cases. And genitive plural, enna. Thas mon an leocht an thaara stheor an na. Thaare sun nan haate. Section 39. Strong masculine and neuter nouns have genitive singular in es, plural in a. Thas kuninges hel. That hus is elra husa betst. Section 40. Strong feminins have genitive singular a, the same as the dative. And generally, genitive plural a. Thaare hel le duro. Elra dad amarost. Section 41. The genitive is used instead of the accusative, with verbs expressing thinking of, being mindful of, remembering, and other mental states and various emotions. He je munde thaara woorda the he ar sprach. Y dele swenan. He thainoran, thaas je berst keepes. Section 42. Also with some verbs of having possession or enjoyment of, striving for. Swerdes on faun. Metis brookan. Tha find his echton. Section 43. Some of these verbs govern a genitive of the thing, and an accusative of the person, especially those which express asking, he he ne frides padon. Section 44. Some of them have a dative of the person, especially those expressing granting or denying. He him frides etido de. He thanko de hire faas. Section 45. The following table will show the chief noun inflections. Singular nominative. Say dai. Singular accusative. Thone dai. Singular dative. Tham dai e. Singular genitive faas dai es. Plural nominative. Tha dagas. Plural dative. Tham dagum. Plural genitive. Tha radaga. Singular nominative. That huse. That's keep. Singular accusative. That huse. Singular dative. Tham huse. Singular genitive. Thas huse. Plural nominative. Tha huse. Thas keepu. Plural dative. Tham huseum. Plural genitive. Tha radaga. Singular nominative. Seo chaster. Seo dad. Singular accusative. Tha chastre. Tha dad. Singular dative. Tha chastre. Singular genitive. Tha chastre. Plural nominative. Tha chastre. Plural dative. Tham chastreum. Plural genitive. Tha chastre. Singular nominative. Se wita. Singular accusative. Thone witan. Singular dative. Tham witan. Singular genitive. Thas witan. Plural nominative. Tha witan. Plural dative. Tham witum. Plural genitive. Tha radawitana. Singular nominative. Tha aare. Singular accusative. Tha aare. Singular dative. Tham aaran. Singular genitive. Thas aaran. Plural nominative. Tha aaran. Plural dative. Tham aarum. Plural genitive. Tha aagena. Singular nominative. Seu kirike. Singular accusative. Tha kirikan. Singular dative. Tha re kirikan. Singular genitive. Tha re kirikan. Plural nominative. Tha kirikan. Plural dative. Tham kirikum. Plural genitive. Tha re kirikena. Section 46. Nouns ending in a long vowel or diphthong contract their inflections. Thus, seu saa has saa in the oblique cases of the singular. Tha re saa strand. So also, seu aa river has dative plural, aam. The weak noun, yefaa, joy, has yefaaan in the oblique singular cases. Mid yefaaan. Section 47. The body of the word undergoes various changes in inflection. Thus, seferch life has genitive, ferres. In such a word as fatferch money, these changes necessarily result in contraction of the inflection. Genitive, thasfeos. Dative, tham feo. He me thasfeos yetido de. End of nouns from first steps in Anglo-Saxon by Henry Sweet. Read by Rachel Klippenstein. Book 5, paragraphs 1 to 13 of On the Latin Language by Varo. Read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. On the Latin Language by Marcus Terentius Varo. Book 5. On the Science of the Origin of Words addressed to Cicero. In what way names were applied to things in Latin, I have undertaken to expound in six books. Of these, I have already composed three before this one and have addressed them to Septumias. In them, I treat of the branch of learning which is called etymology. The considerations which might be raised against it, I have put in the first book. Those adduced in its favor in the second. Those merely describing it in the third. In the following books addressed to you, I shall discuss the problem from what things names were applied in Latin. Both those which are habitual with the ordinary folk and those which are found in the poets. Inasmuch as each and every word has two in it features from what thing and to what thing the name is applied. Therefore, when the question is raised from what thing pertinacchia obstinacy is, it is shown to be from pertendere to persist. To what thing it is applied is told when it is explained that it is pertinacchia obstinacy in a matter in which there ought not to be persistence, but there is because it is perseuerantia steadfastness if a person persists in that in which he ought to hold firm. That former part where they examine why and when words are, the Greeks call etymology, that other part they call semantics. Of these two matters, I shall speak in the following books, not keeping them apart, but giving less attention to the second. These relations are often rather obscure for the following reasons. Not every word that has been applied still exists because lapse of time has blotted out some. Not every word that is in use has been applied without inaccuracy of some kind, nor does every word which has been applied correctly remain as it originally was, for many words are disguised by change of the letters. There are some whose origin is not from native words of our own language. Many words indicate one thing now, but formerly meant something else as is the case with hostess, enemy. For in olden times by this word, they meant a foreigner from a country independent of Roman laws. But now they give the name to him whom they then called perduelis, enemy. I shall take as starting point of my discussion that derivative or case form of the words in which the origin can be more clearly seen. It is evident that we ought to operate in this way because when we say impulse, lacking power, in the nominative, it is less clear that it is from potentia, power, than when we say impotem in the accusative. And it becomes the more obscure if you say pos, having power, rather than impulse, for pos seems to mean rather pons, bridge, than potens, powerful. There are few things which lapse of time does not distort. There are many which it removes, whom you saw beautiful as a boy, him you see unsightly in his old age. The third generation does not see a person such as the first generation saw him. Therefore those that oblivion has taken away even from our ancestors, the painstaking of Musias and Brutus, though it has pursued the runaways, cannot bring back. As for me, even if I cannot track them down, I shall not be the slower for this. But even for this I shall be the swifter in the chase if I can. For there is no slight darkness in the wood where these things are to be caught, and there are no trodden paths to the place which we wish to attain, nor do there fail to be obstacles in the paths which could hold back the hunter on his way. Now he who has observed in how many ways the changing has taken place in those words, new and old, in which there is any and every manner of variation in popular usage, will find the examination of the origin of the words an easier task. For he will find that words have been changed as I have shown in the preceding books, essentially on account of two sets of four causes. For the alterations come about by the loss or the addition of single letters and on account of the transposition or the change of them, and likewise by the lengthening or the shortening of syllables and their addition or loss. Since I have adequately shown by examples in the preceding books of what sort these phenomena are, I have thought that here I need only set a reminder of that previous discussion. Now I shall set forth the origins of the individual words of which there are four levels of explanation. The lowest is that to which even the common folk has come. Who does not see the sources of Argentifodinai, Silverminds, and of Huiacurus, Road Overseer? The second is that to which old-time grammar has mounted, which shows how the poet has made each word which he has fashioned and derived. Here belongs Spocuvius'es, the whistling of the robes. Here his incurvate-necked flock. Here his, with his mental, he bechews his arm. The third level is that to which philosophy ascended, and on arrival began to reveal the nature of those words which are in common use, as, for example, from what Opidum, town, was named, and Huicus, Roe of Houses, and Huia, Street. The fourth is that where the sanctuary is and the mysteries of the High Priest. If I shall not arrive at full knowledge there, at any rate, I shall cast about for a conjecture, which even in matters of our health the physician sometimes does, when we are ill. But if I have not reached the highest level, I shall nonetheless go further up than the second, because I have studied, not only by the lamp of Aristophanes, but also by that of Cleanthes. I have desire to go further than those who expound only how the words of the poets are made up. For it did not seem me that I seek the source in the case of the word which any has had made, and neglect that which long before King Latinas had made, in view of the fact that I get pleasure rather than utility from many words of the poets, and more utility than pleasure from the ancient words. And in fact, are not those words mine which have come to me by inheritance from King Romulus rather than those which were left behind by the poet Livius. Therefore, since words are divided into these three groups, those which are our own, those which are a foreign origin, and those which are obsolete in a forgotten sources, I shall set forth about our own, why they are, about those of foreign origin, when they are, and as to the obsolete, I shall let them alone, except that concerning some of them, I shall nonetheless write what I have found or myself conjecture. In this book, I shall tell about the words denoting places and those things which are in them. In the following book, I shall tell of the words denoting times and those things which take place in them. In the third, I shall tell of both these as expressed by the poets. Pythagoras the Samian says that the primal elements of all things are in pair, as finite and infinite. Good and bad, life and death, day and night. Therefore, likewise, there are the two fundamentals, station and motion, each divided into four kinds. What is stationary or is in motion is body. Where it is in motion is place. While it is in motion is time. What is inherent in the motion is action. The fourfold division will be clearer in this way. Body is, so to speak, the runner. Place is the race course where he runs. Time is the period during which he runs. Action is the running. Therefore, it comes about that for this reason, all things in general are divided into four phases and these universal because there is never time without there being motion. For even an intermission of motion is time. Nor is there motion where there is not place in body because the latter is that which is moved and the former is where. Nor where this motion is. Does there fail to be action? Therefore, place and body, time and action are the four horse team of the elements. Therefore, because the primal classes of things are four in number, so many are the primal classes of words. From among these concerning places and those things which are seen in them, I shall put a summary account in this book but we shall follow them up wherever the kin of the word under discussion is even if it has driven its roots beyond its own territory. For often the roots of a tree which is close to the line of the property have gone out under the neighbor's cornfield. Wherefore, when I speak of places, I shall not have gone astray if from aguer field I pass to an agrarious agrarian man and to an agrícola farmer. The partnership of words is one of many members. The wine festival cannot be set on its way without wine nor can the Curia Calabra announcement hall be opened without the Calatio proclamation. End of the paragraphs one to 13 of book five of On the Latin Language by Varo. Book eight paragraphs one to 12 of On the Latin Language by Varo. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. On the Latin Language by Marcus Sorrentius Varo. Book eight, one book of arguments which are advanced against the existence of the principle of analogy. Speech is naturally divided into three parts as I have shown in the previous books. Its first part is how names were imposed upon things. It's second in what way the derivatives of these names have arrived at their differences. It's third how the words when united with one another reasoningly express an idea. Having set forth the first part, I shall from here begin upon the second as every offshoot is secondary by nature because that vertical trunk from which it comes is primary and it is therefore declined. So there is declension in words. Homo, man is the vertical. Hominis, men's is the oblique because it is declined from the vertical. From the manifold nature of this sort, there are these causes of the differences. For what reason and to what product and in what way in speaking the words are declined. The first two of these I shall pass over briefly for two reasons because there will have to be a re-handling of the topics when I write of the stock of words and because the third of them has numerous and extensive subdivisions of its own. Inflection has been introduced not only into Latin speech but into the speech of all men because it is useful and necessary. For if this system had not developed, we could not learn such a great number of words as we should have. For the possible forms into which they are inflected are numerically unlimited. Nor from those which we should have learned would it be clear what relationship existed between them so far as their meanings were concerned. But as it is, we do see for the reason that which is the offshoot bears a similarity to the original. When legy I have gathered is inflected from lego I gather, two things are clear at the same time. Namely that in some fashion the acts are said to be the same and yet that their doing did not take place at the same time. But if for the sake of a word, one of these two related ideas was called Priemus and the other Recuba, there would be no indication of the unity of idea which is clear in lego and legy and in nominative Priemus, dated Priemo. As among men there are certain kinships either through the males or through the clan so there are among words. For as from an Emilius were sprung the men named Emilius and the clan members of the name. So from the name of Emilius were inflected the words in the noun clan. For from that name which was imposed in the nominative case as Emilius were made Emili, Emilium, Emilius, Emiliorum and in this way also all the other words which are of the same line. The origins of words are therefore two in number and no more in position and inflection. The one is as it were the spring, the other the brook. Men have wished that imposed nouns should be as few as possible that they might be able to learn them more quickly. But derivative nouns they have wished to be as numerous as possible that all might the more easily say those nouns which they need to use. In connection with the first class a historical narrative is necessary for except by outright learning such words do not reach us. For the other class the second a grammatical treatment is necessary and for this there is need of a few brief maxims. For the scheme by which you have learned to inflect in the instance of one noun you can employ in a countless number of nouns. Therefore when new nouns have been brought into common use the whole people at once utters their decline forms without any hesitation. Moreover those who have freshly become slaves and on purchase become members of a large household quickly inflect the names of all their fellow slaves in the oblique cases provided only they have heard the nominative. If they sometimes make mistakes it is not astonishing. Even those who first impose names upon things perhaps made some slips in some instances. For they are supposed to have desire to designate things individually that from these inflection might be made to indicate plurality as hominess men from homo men. They are supposed to have desired that male children be designated in such a way that from these the females might be indicated by inflection as the feminine terentia from the masculine terentius. And that similarly from the names which they set in the nominative case there might be other forms to which they could arrive by inflection. But they are supposed to have been unable to hold fast to these principles in everything because the plural form Skopai denotes either one or two brooms and Aquila Eagle denotes both the male and the female and Whis Force is used for the nominative and for an oblique case of the word. Why such words are not so much at fault as men think it is in most instances not hard to explain but it is not necessary to do so at this time. For it is not how they have been able to arrive at the words but how they wish to express themselves that is of import for the subject which is before us. Inasmuch as genitive Skoparum can be no less easily derived from the plural Skopai which they did impose on the object as its name than if they had given it the name Skopai in the singular and made the genitive Skopai from this and other words likewise. The reason I say why they made these inflected forms from the names which they had set upon things is that which I have shown. The next point is for me to sketch by classes but briefly the forms at which they have wished to arrive by inflection or have not wished to arrive. For there are two classes of words one fruitful which by inflection produces from itself many different forms as for example lego I gather lege I have gathered legam I shall gather and similarly other words in the second class which is barren which produces nothing from itself as for example et and yam nao weeks hardly kras tomorrow magis more kur why in those things whose use was simple the inflection of the name also was simple just as in a house where there's only one slave there's need of only one slave name but in a house where there are many slaves there's need of many such names therefore also in those things which are names because the differentiations of the words are several there are more offshoots and in those things which are connectives and joint words because there was no need for them to be inflected into several forms the words generally have but one form for with one and the same tongue you can fasten a man or a horse or anything else whatever it is which can be fastened to something else thus for example we say in our talking Julius et and Antonio's were consuls with that same et we can link together any set of two consuls or to put it more strongly any and all names and even all words while all the time that one syllable prop word et remains unchanged therefore under nature's guidance it has come about that we should not think that there are inflected forms from all these names which have been set upon things in the word classes in which inflections may develop the parts of speech are two unless following Diane would divide into three divisions the ideas which are indicated by words one division which indicates also case the second which indicates also time the third which indicates neither of these Aristotle says that there are two parts of speech nouns like homo man and epus horse and verse like legate gathers and curit runs end of paragraphs one to twelve of book eight of on the latin language by Varo phonology section from a primer of persian containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax by g s a ranking read for the LibriVox language learning collection volume one this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox dot org read by Nicholas James Bridgewater introductory this little work has been compiled in order to provide the beginner in persian with a varied selection of passages for reading and also for translation from English into persian each passage has its own vocabulary attached to it and in the selection from the gole stone with which the persian extracts begin as also in the extracts from the shaft's diary all vowel points have been inserted as the author knows by experience how much time is wasted by beginners in endeavoring to read un-pointed persian extracts from persian newspapers have been introduced in order to familiarize the student with the journalistic style as also a few copies of letters which will be useful as examples of correspondence as carried on among friends the ordinary course of instruction in persian has been hitherto confined to so-called classical persian whereas for practical purposes a knowledge of the language of today modified as it is by foreign elements is essential for a serviceable acquaintance with persian the few pages on syntax will it is hoped supply sufficient material for the beginner in his early attempts at composition Oxford, October 1907 1. Phonology the persians employ the arabic alphabet which has been in use among them since the arab conquest AD 641 to 651 this alphabet consists of 32 letters which are connected from right to left in forming words each letter is subject to slight modification of form according to its position in the word if the subjoined examples are carefully studied there will be little difficulty in recognizing the various forms of the letters the student is requested to read the remarks which follow the alphabetical tables during his study of the alphabet with regard to pronunciation it should be borne in mind that in the transliteration adopted in this work the equivalents of the vowels employed are as follow A has a sound between a short U and a short E for example the word BASS will be something between the English BUS and BESS U has the sound of the U in the English words BULL FULL I has the sound of the I in pistol the corresponding long vowels are A with a macron which has the sound of A in father U with a macron which is to be sounded like the U in June I with a macron like the Italian I or the double E in beach the diphthongs which occur are formed when either of the semi-vowels VAUV or YE is combined with the short A sound represented by the mark FATTER O is to be pronounced between the sounds of O U in mouse and O in hose example hose a reservoir A has a sound between A Y in day and I E in die example may wine alphabet ALIF ALL transliteration A with a macron INITIAL ALB MEDIAL MAUL FINAL CHODAW BE BE transliteration BE INITIAL BASS MEDIAL ABB FINAL LAB PE P transliteration P INITIAL POL MEDIAL CEPAR FINAL CHAP TE T transliteration T INITIAL TO MEDIAL CETAM FINAL DAST CER transliteration S with two dots underneath INITIAL SABAUT MEDIAL MERS FINAL BAU-S GIM J transliteration J INITIAL JOOFT MEDIAL ADJAM FINAL CAGE CHE CHE transliteration CH underlined INITIAL CHERK MEDIAL BATCHE FINAL CHARCH HAW HAW TRANSLITIATION H with a dot underneath INITIAL HAWKM MEDIAL MAHAAL FINAL SOL CHE CHE TRANSLITIATION KH underlined INITIAL CHODAW MEDIAL LACHT FINAL YACHT DAWL DE TRANSLITIATION DE INITIAL DAWM MEDIAL AUDAM FINAL DAWD ZAUL Z TRANSLITIATION Z underlined INITIAL ZOP MEDIAL RAZIL FINAL KAUKAZ RE RH TRANSLITIATION AUD INITIAL RAS MEDIAL MARD FINAL MAUDAR ZE Z TRANSLITIATION ZED INITIAL ZAMAUN MEDIAL CASOL FINAL BAS ZE ZE TRANSLITIATION ZH underlined INITIAL ZAUL MEDIAL MOJD FINAL PAGE CIN S TRANSLITIATION S INITIAL SALOM MEDIAL DAST FINAL CAS SHIN SHE TRANSLITIATION SH underlined INITIAL SHAK MEDIAL DOSCHMAN FINAL DERRAFSH SAUD S TRANSLITIATION S with a dot under it INITIAL SOL MEDIAL MASR FINAL GORS ZAUD ZE TRANSLITIATION Z with a dot under it INITIAL ZABD MEDIAL MASMUN FINAL BAS TAU T TRANSLITIATION T with two dots under it INITIAL TELAL MEDIAL MATLAB FINAL BAT ZAUD ZE TRANSLITIATION Z with two dots under it INITIAL ZAFAR MEDIAL AZIM FINAL HAZ AIN UR TRANSLITIATION A POSTRAPHY INITIAL ELM MEDIAL FEL FINAL ROB TEIN PUR TRANSLITIATION GH UNDERLINED INITIAL BAM MEDIAL MAGS FINAL DARUK FE F TRANSLITIATION F INITIAL FAUL MEDIAL ZAFAR FINAL LAUF GAUF B TRANSLITIATION Q INITIAL BABR MEDIAL BABAR FINAL DALP KAUF K TRANSLITIATION K INITIAL CAS MEDIAL MACR FINAL SHAK GAUF G TRANSLITIATION G INITIAL GEL MEDIAL MAGAS FINAL RANG LAUM L TRANSLITIATION L INITIAL LONE MEDIAL BOLBOL FINAL MANZEL MIM M TRANSLITIATION M INITIAL MIM MEDIAL SAMUM FINAL SHAK NUN N TRANSLITIATION N INITIAL NUN MEDIAL CANEEZ FINAL SHAMAN VAUV V TRANSLITIATION VW or U with a Macron INITIAL VASIR MEDIAL MAVAUD FINAL ADU HE H TRANSLITIATION H INITIAL HERAUS MEDIAL MEHMAUN FINAL BANDAE YE YE TRANSLITIATION Y or I with a Macron INITIAL YADIN MEDIAL MEEIL FINAL DARI The preceding table gives the forms of the letters as they would occur alone, or at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a word, respectively. It must not be forgotten that certain letters are not to be joined to the letter following, i.e. to the left. These letters are marked with an asterisk in the table. They will have either the isolated or final form as the case may be. For use as initial letters of words, the isolated form of those letters which join to the left is to be used in an abbreviated form as will be seen by reference to the examples given above. It will be recognized that the dots in the various letters having similar ground forms as, for example, BEH, PEH, etc., GEME, CHEH, etc., are the distinguishing marks by which the letters are recognized, and, speaking generally, the initial form of any letter is restricted to just so much of the character as will serve to identify it. Thus, HEH VALVZALD combined spell HOES, CHEH, ALEH, NUN, HEH combined CHAUNEH. In deciphering the above examples, it will be observed that an oblique mark above the letter denotes the short A sound, an oblique mark below the line denotes a short E sound, a mark above the line denotes the short O sound. These vowel points are called respectively FATEH, CASREH and ZAMMEH. Combined with the letters ALEH, YEH and VALV, they form either long vowels or diphthongs as has been noticed. Similarly, the absence of any vowel sound is denoted by the mark JAZM, as in the word TABR, while a doubled consonant has the mark TASH-DEED written over it as in the words SHAK. BAH, a careful study should be made of the alphabet and the examples given, special attention being devoted to acquiring an accurate knowledge of the system of transliteration. The sign is called ALEH FEMAM DU DEH, the prolonged ALEH. The mark MADDEH is not as is often said, another ALEH written horizontally, but is a remnant of the word MADDEH, a scribes mark denoting that the ALEH above which it was written was to be pronounced with a long sound. The word MADD in Arabic means prolongation. In some works, this ALEH FEMAM DU DEH is written thus, two ALEHs following one another. The sign is called ALEH HAMZEH and is, when found at the commencement of a word or syllable, merely a breathing. Its name indicates this quality, as the Arabic word HAMZEH means impelling, thus denoting the impulse necessary to the production of the sound. As example, we may take the word JORAT, pronounced JORAT with the distinct hiatus between the two syllables and a fresh impulse HAMZEH before the second half of the word is pronounced. When occurring as the vowel sound in words of one syllable, HAMZEH is pronounced with somewhat of a bleating sound, RAS, pronounced RAS. The student is recommended to practice writing the words given as examples of the alphabet, both in the Persian character and with the transliteration as shown. End of the phonology section of a primer of Persian containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax by GSA RANKING.