 Introduction de Mutual Aid, un facteur d'évolution. C'est un Recording de LibriVox. Toutes les recordings de LibriVox sont dans le domaine public. Pour plus d'informations ou de volontiers, visitez LibriVox.org. Recording by Enko. Mutual Aid, un facteur d'évolution. Peter Kropotkin. Introduction. Les deux aspects de la vie d'animal me impressionnent le plus durant les journées que j'ai faites dans ma vie, dans l'Ouest de Sibérie et au Nord de Manchuria. L'une des deux était l'extrême sévérité de la lutte pour l'existence, dont la plupart des animaux ont besoin de poursuivre l'inclamé nature, la destruction énorme de la vie qui, périodiquement, resulte des agences naturelles, et la puissance conséquente de la vie sur le terrain le plus fort qui a fallu sous mon observation. Et l'autre était que, même dans ces quelques spots où l'animal a été dans l'abandon, j'ai faim de trouver, même si je n'étais pas obligé de regarder pour ça, que le bâtiment de l'existence de l'existence entre les animaux qui sont dans la même espèce, qui était considérée par le plus d'organistes, Open Bracket, qui n'est pas toujours d'organiser lui-même, c'est la caractéristique dominante de la lutte pour la vie et le principal facteur de l'évolution. Les terribles tombeaux, qui s'entendent sur la portion nord de Eurasie, dans le plus tard du winter, et la fraude glace qui l'a souvent fallu, les tombeaux et les tombeaux, qui sont rétendus chaque année dans le second half de mai, quand les arbres sont déjà en pleine blanche, et les formes d'insectes sont partout, l'early frost et, occasionnellement, la faute glace en Juillet et l'August, qui a suddenement détruit des méridates d'insectes, ainsi que les secondes brutes des bords dans les progrès, les rèdes torrentiaires parmi les moons, qui ont fallu dans des régions plus temporaires en Auguste et en septembre, résultant dans des inundations sur une scale qui n'est qu'une seule dans l'Amérique et l'Asie occidentale, et sur le plâtre de la plâtre, les aérias, comme les États-Unis, et finalement, la faute glace en octobre, qui a éventuellement rendu le territoire comme grand, comme France et Germany, absolument impracticiables pour les ruminants, et qui ont détruit leurs parmi les 1000, ce sont les conditions sous lesquelles j'ai vu la vie animale combattre dans l'Asie Nouvelle. Ils m'ont réalisé que l'early a été l'importance de la nature de ce qu'August described comme les checks naturels pour la multiplication, en comparaison avec la lutte entre les individus de la même espèce pour le sens de la subsistance, qui peut aller ici et là à un extent limité, mais qui n'atteigne l'importance d'un former. La puissance de la vie et la population, pas de la population, étant la feature distincte de cette grande partie du globe, qui est nommée à l'Asie Nouvelle. J'ai constaté depuis, qu'une étude de subsequence n'a confirmé que la réalité de cette compétition fière pour la nourriture et la vie dans chaque espèce, qui était un article de la fête avec tous les ruminants, et conséquent, à la porte dominante, dont cette sorte de compétition était supposée jouer dans l'évolution de nouvelles espèces. D'autre côté, d'ailleurs, j'ai vu la vie animal dans l'abondance, par exemple, sur les lacs, sur les scores des espèces et des millions d'individus qui sont ensemble pour réveiller leur progénie, dans les colonies de Rodens, dans les migrations des burs, qui ont été placées à ce moment, sur une scale réelle américaine à l'un des usuriers, et surtout dans la migration de Fallodir, qui ont été rencontrés dans l'armure, et dans les scores des milliers d'individus de ces animaux intelligents, qui sont ensemble d'une territoire immense, volant avant les lieux d'arrivée, afin de crosser l'armure, où c'est narré dans seulement les scènes de la vie animal qui s'est passée avant mes yeux, j'ai vu l'aide de l'aide et de l'aide de l'aide, qui m'a aidé à un extérieur qui m'a aidé à une feature d'importance pour la vie maintenance, la préservation d'une espèce et sa plus forte évolution. Et enfin, j'ai vu entre le cimé wild cattle et les rosses dans le transport Calia, entre les vies ruminants partout, les squirerelles et d'autres, que quand les animaux ont de l'espoir contre la cité de la nourriture, en conséquence d'un d'entre eux qui a mentionné les rosses, toute cette portion de la espèce qui est affectée par la calamité vient de l'audition de tant d'improvéries en vigue et de la santé, qu'une évolution progressive de la espèce peut être basée dans ces périodes de compétition. Consequentement, quand mon attention a été détruite plus tard dans les relations entre le christianisme et la sociologie, je pourrais s'agir avec un autre travail et une fête de paix qui a été élevé sur cet important sujet. Nous avons tous aimé prouver que l'homme allant à ses intelligences et l'intelligence peut mitiger la puissance de la vie entre les hommes. Mais, nous reconnaissons en même temps que l'attention pour le sens de l'existence de tous les animaux contre tous ses concénieurs et de tous les hommes contre tous les hommes était une loi de nature. Cette vue, d'ailleurs, ne pouvait pas être acceptée parce que j'étais persuadé d'admettre une pétillesse dans une vie dans chaque espèce et de voir dans cette vie une condition de progrès était d'admettre quelque chose qui n'a pas été prouvel mais aussi une confirmation d'admettre une lecture et la loi de la vie de la vie qui était délivrée à un Congrésse de la nature en janvier 1880 par le professeur Kessler le va-t-il de la St. Petersburg de l'Université m'a évoqué une nouvelle lumière et tout le sujet. Kessler's idea était que, par contre la loi de la vie de la vie de la vie de la vie qui était un succès de la vie qui était une question de l'aide des Russians de la vie qui était un objectif de la vie contre le contrainte qui était une discussion d'important il était un défilé qui était une question d'admettre un procès de l'indicatif d'esprit de la vie qui était un objectif d'admettre une idée d'admettre une idée d'admettre une idée En un point, je ne pouvais pas entièrement éloigner ces views de Kessler. Kessler a aidé à l'entraînement parentiel et careur pour le progenie. Open Bracket, CBLO Chapter 1, Close Bracket. Comme pour la source d'inclinations mutuelles dans les animaux. Mais pour déterminer comment ces deux ressources ont vraiment été au travail dans l'évolution des instants sociables et comment d'autres instants ont été au travail dans la même direction semble à moi une question très distincte et très grande, qui on ne peut tout le temps pas discuter. Ce sera seulement après que nous ayons bien établi les façons de mutuelles aidées dans les différentes clôtures des animaux et la importance de l'évolution que nous devons pouvoir étudier ce qui est dans l'évolution des ressources sociables, des ressources parentielles et ce que l'on peut faire pour la sociabilité. Le latin a évidemment été l'origine de l'arrivée de l'évolution de l'animal peut-être même à des stages de colonie. Je me conséquentais directeur de ma attention à déterminer, avant tout, l'importance d'un factor de l'évolution de l'esprit de l'évolution, qui a en fait évoqué l'exercice de l'origine de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de la nature. L'importance d'un factor de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de la nature qui ne pouvait seulement être députée, n'a pas évoqué le genius naturaliste qui a manifesté dans le graif. Quand l'exercice de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de l'esprit de la nature, il était en 1827, que deux petits fleurs de fleurs qui ont emmené de lui, étaient retrouvés par lui le jour suivant dans le sang de Robin Redbrest, un bras en couche de roi, qui a fait les petits fleurs, ensemble avec leurs jeunes filles, le graif a été assez excité par ce fait. Il a vu dans une confirmation de ses visées panthéistiques et a dit que son ressort de l'exercice de l'exercice ne pourrait pas être en train de l'accompagner en quelque chose qui a été le caractère normal des gyrétiens, alors que beaucoup d'humiliers et du magasin auraient été évoqués. Il a retourné au maturier le prochain jour, et plus honnêtement a traité un homme en couche d'open, qui était un asélogiement concocté, un banal de géss, pour faire un étudiant spécial, en pensant que il serait probablement surement deningueux résultats. Édition 1848, volume 3, pages 219-221, close bracket. Unfortunately, this study was never made. Although it is very possible that Brem, who has accumulated in his works such rich materials relative to mutual aid among animals, might have been inspired by Goeth's remark. Several works of importance were published in the years 1872-1886 dealing with the intelligence and the mental life of animals. Open bracket, they are mentioned in a footnote in chapter 1 of this book. Close bracket, and three of them dealt more especially with the subject and the consideration. Namely, Les Sociétés animales par Espinas, open bracket Paris, 1877, close bracket, la lutte pour l'existence et l'association, pour la lutte et lecture par G.L. Lanessan, open bracket, April 1881, close bracket, et Louis Butchner's book, lièbe une lièse basse-leben in their teowelt of which the first edition appeared in 1882 or 1883 and a second much enlarge in 1885. But excellent though each of his works is, they leave ample room for a work in which mutual aid would be considered not only as an argument in favor of a pre-human origin of moral instincts but also as a law of nature and a factor of evolution. Espinas devoted his main attention to such animal societies, open bracket, ounce, bees, close bracket as or establish upon a physiological division of labor, and though his work is full of admirable hints in all possible directions, it was written at a time when the evolution of human societies could not yet be treated with the knowledge we now possess. Lanessan's lecture has more of a character with brilliantly laid out general plan of a work in which mutual support would be dealt with beginning with rocks in the sea and then passing in review the world of plants, of animals and men. As to Butchner's work, suggestive though it is enriching facts, I could not agree with its leading idea. The book begins with him to love nearly all his illustrations or intended to prove the existence of love and sympathy among animals. However, to reduce animal sociability to love and sympathy means to reduce its generality and its importance, just as human ethics based upon love and personal sympathy only have contributed to narrow the comprehension of a moral feeling as a whole. It is not love to my neighbor whom I often did not know at all which induces me to seize a pail of water and to rush towards his house when I see eternal fire. It is a far wider even though more vague feeling or instinct of human solidarity and sociability which moves me. So it is also with animals, it is not love and not even sympathy, open bracket understood in its proper sense, close bracket, which induces a horde of ruminance or of horses to form a ring in order to resist an attack of wolves. Not love which induces wolves to form a pack for hunting. Not love which induces kittens or lambs to play. Or a dozen of species of young birds to spend their days together in the autumn. And it is neither love nor personal sympathy which induces many thousand fallow deer scattered over its territory as large as France to form into a score of separate herds or marching towards a given spot in order to cross via a river. It is a feeling infinitely wider than love or personal sympathy. An instinct that has been slowly developed among animals and men in the course of an extremely long evolution and which has taught animals and men are like the force they can brew from the practice of mutual aid and support and the jewels they can find in social life. The importance of this distinction will be easily appreciated by the student of animal psychology and the most so by the student of human ethics. Love, sympathy and self sacrifice certainly play an immense part in the progressive development of our moral feelings. But it is not love and not even sympathy upon which society is based in mankind. It is a conscience be it only at the stage of an instinct of human solidarity. It is the unconscious recognition of a force that is brought by each man from the practice of mutual aid. The close dependency of everyone's happiness opens the happiness of all. Another sense of justice or equality which brings the individual to consider the rights of every other individual as equal to his own. Upon this broad and necessary foundation, the still higher moral feelings are developed. But this subject lies outside the scope of the present work and I shall only indicate here lecture, justice and morality which I delivered in reply to Hexley's ethics and in which the subject has been treated at some length. Consequently, I thought that a book written on mutual aid as a law of nature and a factor of evolution might fill an important gap. When Hexley issued in 1888 his struggle for life manifesto, open bracket, struggle for existence and its bearing open men, close bracket, which to my appreciation was a very incorrect representation of the facts of nature as one sees man in the bush and in the forest. I communicated with editor of 19th century or scheme him whether he would give hospitality of this review to an elaborate reply to the views of one of the most prominent Darwinists and Mr. James Niles received a proposal with less empathy. I also spoke of it to W. Bates, yes certainly that is true Darwinism was his reply, it is horrible what they have made of Darwin. Write these articles and when they are printed I will write to you a letter which you may publish. Unfortunately it took me nearly 7 years to write these articles and when the law was published Bates was no longer living. After having discussed the importance of mutual aid in various classes of animals, I was evidently bound to discuss the importance of the same factor in the evolution of men. This was the more necessary as there are a number of evolutionists who may not refuse to admit the importance of mutual aid among animals, but who, like Herbert Spencer, will refuse to admit it for men. For primitive men they maintained war of each against all was the law of life. In half of this assertion which has been too willingly repeated without sufficient criticism since the terms of hubs is supported by what we know about the early phases of human development is discussed in the chapters given to the savages and the barbarians. The number and importance of mutual aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half savage masses during the earliest clan period of mankind and still more during the next village community period and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind down to the present times induced me to extend my researches to the later historical periods as well especially to study that most interesting period, the three medieval city republics of which the universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual support instincts inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution play even now in our modern society which is supposed to rest upon the principle everyone for himself and the state for all but which it never has succeeded nor will succeed in realizing. It may be objected to this book that both animals and men are represented in it and too favorable an aspect that their sociable qualities are insisted upon while their antisocial and self-asserting instincts are hurledly touched upon. This was however unavoidable, we have heard so much lately of a harsh, pitiless struggle for life which was said to be carried on by every animal against all other animals, every savage against all other savages and every civilized man against all his co-citizens and these assertions have so much become an article of faith that it was necessary first of all to oppose to them a wide series of facts showing animal and human life under a quite different aspect. It was necessary to indicate the overwhelming importance which sociable habits play in nature and in the progressive evolution of both animal species and human beings to prove that they secure to animals a better protection from their enemies very often facilities for getting food and open bracket, winter provisions, migrations etc plus bracket, longevity therefore a greater facility for the development of intellectual faculties and that they have given to men in addition to their same advantages the possibility of working out those institutions which have enabled mankind to survive in a sort struggle against nature and to progress notwithstanding all the vicissitudes of this history. It is a book on the law of mutual aid viewed as one of the key factors of evolution not an all factors of evolution and their respective values and this first book had to be written before the latter could become possible I should certainly be the law to underread the part which the self-assolation of the individual has played in the evolution of mankind however this subject requires I believe a much deeper treatment than the one it has ever received in the history of mankind individual self-assolation has often been and continually is something quite different from and far larger and deeper than the petty unintelligent narrow mindedness which was with a large class of writers goes for individualism and self-assolation nor have history making individuals be limited to those whom historians have represented as heroes my intention consequently is if circumstances permit it to discuss separately the part taken by the self-assolation of the individual in the progressive evolution of mankind I can only make in this place the following general remark when the mutual aid institutions, the tribe, the village community, the guiles, the major city began in the course of history to lose their primitive character to be invaded by parasitic growths and thus to become hindrances to progress the revolt of individuals against these institutions to two different aspects, part of those who rose up strong to purify the old institutions or to work out a higher form of common wealth based upon the same mutual aid principles they tried for instance to introduce the principle of compensation instead of a lex talionist and later on the pardon of offensives or a still higher ideal of equality before the human conscience in lieu of compensation according to clause value but at the very same time another portion of the same individual rebelle and they avoid to break down the protective institutions of mutual support with no other intention but to increase their own wealth and their own powers in this frequented contest between the two clauses of revolted individuals and the supporters of what existed lies the real tragedy of history but to delineate that contest and honestly to study the part played in the evolution of mankind by each one of these three forces would require at least as many years and it took me to write this book of works dealing with nearly the same subject which have been published since the publication of my articles on mutual aid among animals I must mention the lual lectures on the asset of men by Henry Drummond open bracket, London 1894 close bracket and the origin and growth of the moral instinct by Ace of the land open bracket, London 1898 close bracket both are constructed chiefly on the lines taken in Bushner's love and in the second work the parental and familial feeling as the sole influence at work in the development of the moral feelings has been dealt with at some length A third work dealing with men entretied on similar lines is the principles of sociology by Professor F. A. Giddings the first edition of which was published in 1896 at New York and London and the leading ideas of which was sketched by the author in a pamphlet in 1894 I must leave however to literary critics the thoughts of discussing the points of contact resemblance or divergence between these works and mine the different chapters of this book were published first in the 19th century open bracket, mutual aid among animals in September and November 1890 mutual aid among savages in April 1891 mutual aid among the barbarians in January 1892 mutual aid in the medieval city in August and September 1894 mutual aid amongst modern men in January and June 1896 close bracket in bringing them out in a book form my first intention was to embody in an appendix the mass of materials as well as the discussion of several secondary points which had to be omitted in the review articles it appeared however that the appendix would double the size of a book and I was compelled to abandon or at least to postpone its publication the present appendix includes the discussion of only a few points which have been the matter of scientific controversy during the last few years and into the text I have introduced only such matters as could be introduced without altering the structure of the work I am glad of this opportunity for expressing to the editor of the 19th century Mr. James Nalls my very best thanks both for the kind hospitality which he offered to these papers in his review as soon as he knew the general idea and the permission he kindly gave me to reprint them Bromley Camp 192 end of introduction recording by Enko chapter 1 of mutual aid a factor of evolution this is a library box recording all library box recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit librarybox.org recording by Enko mutual aid a factor of evolution by Peter Kropotkin chapter 1 mutual aid among animals the conception of struggle for existence as a factor of evolution introduced into science by Darwin and Wallace has permitted us to embrace an immensely wide range of phenomena in one single generalization which soon became the very basis of our philosophical, biological and sociological speculations an immense variety of facts adaptations of functions and structure of organic beings to their surroundings physiological and anatomical evolution intellectual progress and moral development itself which we formally used to explain by so many different causes were embodied by Darwin in one general conception we understood them as continued and the others as a struggle against adverse circumstances for such a development of individuals, races, species and societies as would result in the greatest possible fullness, variety and intensity of life it may be that at the outset himself was not fully aware of the generality of the factor which he first invoked for explaining one series only of facts relative to the accumulation of individual variations in incipient species but he foresaw that the term which he was introducing into science would lose its philosophical and its only true meaning if it were to be used in its narrow sense only that of a struggle between individuals for the sheer means of existence and at the very beginning of his memorable work he insisted upon the term being taken in its large and metaphorical sense including dependence of one being on another and including open bracket which is more important close bracket, not only the life of the individual but success in living progeny open footnote, origin of species 62 of first edition close footnote while he himself was chiefly using the term in its narrow sense for his own special purpose he warned his followers against committing the error, open bracket which he seems once to have committed himself, close bracket of overrating its narrow meaning in the descent of men he gave some powerful pages to illustrate its proper wide sense he pointed out how struggle between separate individuals for the means of existence disappears how struggle is replaced by cooperation and how that substitution results in the development of intellectual and moral faculties which secure to the species the best conditions for survival he intimated that in such cases the fittest or not the physically strongest know the cunning guests but those who learn to combine so as mutually to support each other like, for the welfare of a community those communities he wrote which included the greatest number of the most sympathetic members would flourish best and rear the greatest number of offspring open bracket second edition page 163 close bracket the term which originated from the narrow Malthusian conception of competition between each and all thus lost its narrowness in the mind of one who knew nature unhappily, these remarks which might have become the basis of most food-food researchers were overshadowed by the masses of facts gathered through the purpose of illustrating the consequences of the real competition for life besides, Darwin never attempted to submit to a closer investigation the relative importance of the two aspects under which the struggle for existence appears in the animal world and he never wrote the work he proposed to write open the natural checks to over multiplication although that work would have been the crucial test for appreciating the real purport of individual struggle and the very pages just mentioned amidst data disproving the narrow Malthusian conception of struggle the old Malthusian live and reappeared namely in Darwin's remarks as to the alleged inconveniences of maintaining the weak in mind in our civilized societies open bracket chapter 5 close bracket as if thousands of weak-bodied and infirm poets, scientists inventors and reformers together with over thousands of so-called fools and weak-minded enthusiasts were not the most precious weapons used by humanity in its struggle for existence by intellectual and moral arms which Darwin himself emphasized in those same chapters of descent of men it happened with Darwin's theory as it always happens with theories having any bearing upon human relations instead of widening it according to his own hints his followers narrowed it still more and while Herbert Spencer starting on independent but closely allied lines attempted to widen the inquiry into that great question who are the fittest especially in the appendix to the third edition of the data of ethics the numberless followers of Darwin reduced the notion of struggle for existence to its narrowest limits they came to conceive the animal world as a world of perpetual struggle against half-stuff individuals first thing for one another's blood they made modern literature resound with the war cry of root the vanquished as if it were the lost world of modern biology we must struggle for personal advantages to the height of a biological principle which men must submit to as well under the menace of the wild succumbing in a world based upon mutual extermination leaving aside the economists who know of natural science but a few words borrowed from second hand vulgarizers we must recognize that even the most authorized exponent of Darwin's views did their best to maintain those false ideas infact, if we take Huxley who certainly is considered as one of the abless exponents of the theory of evolution were we not taught by him in a paper on the struggle for existence and its bearing open men of that from the point of view of the moralists the animal world is on about the same level as the gladiators should the creators are fairly well treated and set to fight here by the strongest the swiftest and the cunningest live to fight another day the spectator has no need to turn his thumb down as no quarter is given or further down in the same article did he not tell us that as among animals so among primitive men the weakest and stupidest went to the world while the toughest and sureest those who were best fitted to cope with their circumstances but not the best in another way survived life was a continuous free fight and beyond the limited and temporary relations of the family the hobesian war of each against all was the normal state of existence open footnote 19th century february 1888 page 165 close footnote in how far this view of nature is supported by fact will be seen from the evidence which will be here submitted to the reader as regards the animal world and as regards primitive men but it may be remarked at once that Huxley's view of nature had as little claim to be taken as a scientific deduction as the opposite view of Housseau who saw in nature but love, peace and harmony destroyed by the accession of men in fact, the first walk in the forest the first observation upon any animal society or even the pure use of any serious work dealing with animal life open bracket, dobe, knees jubons, levayants no matter which close bracket cannot but set the naturalist thinking about the part taken by social life in the life of animals and prevent him from seeing in nature nothing but a field of slaughter just as this would prevent him from seeing in nature nothing but harmony and peace Housseau had committed the error of excluding the big and claw fight from his thoughts and Huxley committed the opposite error but neither Housseau's optimism nor Huxley's pessimism can be accepted as an impartial interpretation of nature as soon as we study animals not in laboratories and museums only but in the forest and the prairie in the steppe and the mountains we at once perceive that though there is an immense amount of warfare and extermination going on amidst various species and especially amidst various classes of animals there is at the same time perhaps even more of mutual support mutual aid and mutual defense amidst animals belonging to the same species or at least to the same society sociability is as much a law of nature as mutual struggle of course it would be extremely difficult to estimate however roughly the relative numerical importance of both these series of facts but if we resort to an indirect test and host nature who are the fittest, those who are continually at war with each other or those who support one another we at once see that those animals which acquire habits of mutual aid are undoubtedly the fittest they have more chances to survive and they attain in their respective classes the highest development of intelligence and bodily organization if the numberless facts which can be brought forward to support this view or taken into account we may safely say that mutual aid is as much a law of animal life as mutual struggle but that as a factor of evolution it most probably has a far greater importance in as much as it favors the development of such habits and characters as ensure the maintenance and further development of the species together with the greatest amount of welfare and enjoyment of life for the individual with the least waste of energy of the scientific followers of Darwin the first as far as I know who understood the full purport of mutual aid as a law of nature and the chief factor of evolution was a well-known Russian zoologist the late dean of St. Petersburg University Professor Kessler he developed his ideas in an address which he delivered in January 1880 a few months before his death at a congress of Russian naturalist but like so many good things published in the Russian tongue a new but remarkable address remains almost entirely unknown Open Footnote Living aside the pre-Dauvinian writers like Tussnell, Fie, and many others several works containing many striking instances of mutual aid chiefly however illustrating animal intelligence were issued previously to that date I may mention those of Rousseau Le Faculté étalais des animaux 2 volumes Brussels 1872 Elbouchner's Osdame Gestesleben de Tire seconde édition in 1877 Maximilian Pertis Huébéadas Céline Leben Der Tire Lebsig 1876 Spina publishes his most remarkable work The Society Animal in 1877 and in that work he pointed out the importance of animal societies and their bearing open the preservation of species and entered open a most valuable discussion of the origin of societies In fact, Spina's book contains all that has been written since upon mutual aid and many good things besides If I nevertheless make a special mention of Kesselier's address it is because he raised mutual aid to the height of a law much more important in evolution than the law of mutual struggle The same ideas were developed next year Open Bracket in April 1881 Close Bracket by G. Lanesson in lecture published in 1882 under his title La lutte pour l'existence et l'association pour la lutte G. Romain's Capital Work Animal Intelligence was issued in 1882 and followed next year by the Mental Evolution in Animals About the same time, Open Bracket 1883 Close Bracket Buchner publishes another work Liebes Un Liesbés Leben in Der Tire World a second edition of which was issued in 1885 The idea as seen was in the air Close footnote As a zoologist of all standing he felt bound to protest against the abuse of the term the struggle for existence borrowed from zoology or at least against overrating its importance zoology he said and those sciences which deal with men continually insist upon what they call the pitiless law of struggle for existence but they forget the existence of another law which may be described as the law of mutual aid which law at least for the animals is far more essential than the former he pointed out how the need of living progeny necessarily brings animals together and the more the individuals keep together the more they mutually support each other and the more of the chances of a species for surviving as well as for making further progress and its intellectual development all clauses of animals he continued and especially the higher ones practice mutual aid and he illustrated his idea by examples borrowed from the life of the burying beaters and the social life of birds and some mamalia the examples were few as might have been expected in a short opening address but the chief points were clearly stated and after mentioning that in the evolution of mankind mutual aid played a still more prominent part Professor Kessler concluded as follows I obviously do not deny the struggle for existence but I maintain that the progressive development of the animal kingdom and especially of mankind is favored much more by mutual support than by mutual struggle all organic beings have two essential needs that of nutrition and that of propagating the species the former brings them to struggle and to mutual extermination while the needs of maintaining the species bring them to approach one another but I am inclined to think that in the evolution of the organic world in the progressive modification of organic beings mutual support among individuals plays a much more important part than their mutual struggle open footnote memos open bracket trodhi close bracket of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists volume 11, 1880 close footnote the correctness of the above views struck most of the Russian zoologists present and Sayem Vetsov whose work is well known to ornithologists and geographers supported them and illustrated them by a few more examples he mentioned some of the species of falcons which have an almost ideal organization for robbery and nevertheless are indicated while other species of falcons which practice mutual help do thrive take on the other side a sociable bird the duck he said it is poorly organized on the whole but it practices mutual support and it almost invades the earth as may be judged from its numberless varieties and species the readiness of the Russian zoologists to accept Kessler's views seems quite natural because nearly all of them have had opportunities of studying the animal world in the white uninhabited regions of northern Asia and east Russia and it is impossible to study like regions without being brought to the same ideas I recollect myself the impression produced upon me by the animal world of Siberia when I explored the victim regions in the company of so accomplished a zoologist as my friend Polyakov was we both were under the fresh impression of the original species but we then looked for the king competition between animals of the same species which the trading of Darwin's work had prepared us to expect even after taking into account the remox of the third chapter open bracket page 54 close bracket we saw plenty of adaptations for struggling very often in common against the adverse circumstances of climate or against various enemies and Polyakov wrote many a good page open the mutual dependency of carnivores ruminants and rodents graphical distribution we witnessed numbers of facts of mutual support especially during the migrations of birds and ruminants but even in the Amur and Uzuri regions where animal life swarms in abundance facts of real competition and struggle between higher animals of the same species came very seldom under my notice who I eagerly searched for them the same impression appears in the works of most Russian zoologists it probably explains why Keisler's ideas were so welcomed by the Russian Darwinists whilst like ideas or not invoked amidst the followers of Darwin in western Europe the first thing which strike us as soon as we begin studying the struggle for existence under both its aspects direct and metaphorical is the abundance of facts of mutual aid not a need for rearing progeny as recognized by most evolutionnists but also for the safety of the individual and for providing it with the necessary food with many large divisions of animal kingdom mutual aid is the rule mutual aid is met with even amidst the lowest animals and we must be prepared to learn someday from the students of microscopic open life facts of unconscious mutual support even from the life of microorganisms of course our knowledge of life of invertebrates save the termites, the arts and the bees is extremely limited and yet even as regards the lower animals we may glean a few facts of well ascertained cooperation the numberless associations of locusts, vanessae, syncydélé, sikadee and so on are practically quite unexplored but the very fact of their existence indicates that they must be composed on about the same principles as the temporary associations of ants or bees for purposes of migration as to the beetles we have quite well observed facts of mutual help amidst the burying beetles open bracket necrophoris they must have some decaying organic matter to lay their eggs in and thus to provide their larvae with food but that matter must not decay very rapidly so they are want to bury in the ground the corpses of all kinds of small animals which they occasionally find in their rambles as a rule they live an isolated life but when one of them has discovered the corpse of a mouse or of a bird which it hardly could manage to bury itself it calls 4, 6 or 10 of the beetles to perform the operation with united efforts if necessary they transport the corpse to a suitable soft ground and they bury it in a very considerate way without carrelling as to which of them will enjoy the privilege of laying its eggs in the burying corpse and when Gleditch attach a dead bird to a cross made out of two sticks or suspended a third to a stick planted in the soil the little beetles would in the same friendly way combine their intelligences to overcome the autophies of men the same combination of the thoughts has been noticed among the den beetles even among animals standing at a somewhat lower stage of organization we may find like examples d'enclosures et crâbes de l'Ouest Indie et de l'Ouest Amérique combinées en large formes afin d'y aller et d'y déposer des verres et chaque migration implique une concert, une coopération et d'un soutien mutuel à cause d'un grand Mollucca Crab Open Bracket, Limoulus Close Bracket j'ai étudier l'Open Bracket en 1882 à l'acquiryme Brighton Close Bracket avec l'extrait de l'assistance avec ces animaux clums ou capables d'entraîner un comrade en cas de besoin un d'entre eux a étudié l'Open Bracket dans une salle du tank et son épaisseur comme Carapace l'a préparé pour sa position naturelle le plus tôt qu'il y avait dans la salle et l'ironie qui rendait la torse encore plus difficile ses comrades sont venus à la rescue et pour une heure de temps j'ai regardé comment ils m'ont aidé les prisonniers ils sont venus à l'un des deux ils ont poussé leurs amis et d'un d'entre eux ont succédé à l'entraînement mais alors l'ironie l'aurait prévenu à l'achever de la rescue et l'acquiryme l'a réveillé très bien après beaucoup d'attempts un d'entre eux m'a aidé à l'entraînement et m'a aidé à l'entraînement qui commençait avec des forces frais la même poussée et l'entraînement de leur aide à l'acquiryme pour plus de deux heures et quand on vivait on s'est encore réveillé une glace à l'entraînement le travail de la rescue encore continuait depuis tout ça je ne peux pas refuser à l'observation coûtée par Dr Erasmus Darwin c'est-à-dire que la crainte commande durant la saison de maulting des stations sont centiléles et inmoutées ou d'individuels pour protéger les ennemis et les ennemis d'individuels dans leur state improtecte Open Footnote Georges G. Romanès Animal Intelligence 1° édition page 233 Close Footnote fax illustré mutual aid amidst the termites the ants and the bees are so well known to the general reader especially through the works of Romanès Elbouchner and Sir John Lubock that I may limit my remarks to a very few hints Open Footnote Pierre Houbert Sléformi et Edige Genève 1861 Forest Recherche sur les fourmis de la Suisse Zurich 1874 and G. T. Mogriges harvesting ants and trapdoor spiders London 1873 and 1874 ought to be in the hands of every boy and girl C. Olso Blanchard's Metamorphose Des Insects Paris 1868 G. H. Fabst Souvenir entomologique Paris 1886 Hebrods étude des murs des fourmis Genève 1864 Sir John Lubock's ants, bees and waps and so on Close Footnote If we take an ans-ness we not only see that every description of work rearing of progeny foraging building rearing of aphids and so on is performed according to the principles of voluntary mutual aid we must also recognize with 4L that the chief the fundamental feature of the life of many species of ants is the fact for every ant of sharing its food already swallowed and partly digested with every member of the community which may apply for it 2 ants belonging to 2 different species or to 2 hostilesness when they occasionally meet together will avoid each other but 2 ants belonging to the same nest or to the same colony of nest will approach each other exchange a few movements with the antenna and if one of them is hungry or thirsty and especially if the other has dropped food the individual thus requested never refuses it sets apart its mandibles takes a proper position and regurgidates a drop of transparent fluid which is leaked up by the hungry ant regurgidating food for other ants is so prominent a future in the life of ants open bracket at liberty close bracket and it so constantly request both for feeding hungry comrades and for feeding lover that 4L considers the digestive tube of the ants as consisting of 2 different parts one of which the posterior is for the special use of the individual and the other the anterior part is chiefly for the use of a community if an ant which has dropped food has been selfish enough to refuse feeding a comrades it will be treated as an enemy or even worse if the refusal has been made while its skin spoke were fighting with some other species they will fall back upon the greedy individual and even open the enemies themselves and if an ant has not refused to feed another ant belonging to an enemy species it will be treated by the king's fault of a latter as a friend all this is confirmed by most accurate observation and decisive experiments open footnote 4L's research pages 244 275 278 her best description of the process is admirable it also contains a hint as to the possible of the instinct open bracket popular edition pages 158 160 close bracket see appendix second close footnote in that immense division of the animal kingdom which embodies more than 1000 species and is so numerous that the Brazilians pretend that Brazil belongs to the arts not to men competition amidst the members of the same nest or the colony of nests does not exist however terrible the wars between different species and whatever it is committed as war time mutual aid between the community self-division grown into a habit and very often self-sacrifice for the common welfare of the rule the aunts and termites have renounced the Hobbesian war and they are better for it their wonderfulness their buildings superior in relative size to those of men their paved roads and overground vaulted galleries their spacious holes and granaries their corn fields harvesting and molting of grain the agriculture of the aunts is so wonderful that for a long time it has been doubted the fact is now so well proved by Mr.Mugridge Dr.Linsekoum Mr.Colonel Sykes and Dr.Jerdon that no doubt is possible see an excellent summary of evidence in Mr.Romanes' work see also died this guillotine any gear should American need Chen amazen by Elf Mueller in Schimpers-Botan Miss Ostentropin 6.1893 close footnote their rational methods of nursing their eggs and larvae and of building specialness for rearing the fight whose lineage so picturesly described as the cows of the aunts and finally their courage pluck and superior intelligence all these are the natural outcome of a mutual aid which they practice at every stage of their busy and neighborious lives that mood of life also necessarily resulted in the development of another essential feature immense development of individual initiative which in its turn evidently led to the development of that high and varied intelligence which cannot but strike the human observer open footnote this second principle was not recognized at once former observers often spoke of kings, queens managers and so on but since Foubert and Fourel have published their manute observations no doubt is possible as to the free scope left for every including their wars close footnote if we knew no other facts from animal life than what we know about the aunts and the termites we already might safely conclude that mutual aid open bracket which leads to mutual confidence the first condition for courage close bracket an individual initiative open bracket the first condition for intellectual progress close bracket or two factors infinitely more important than mutual struggle in the evolution of the animal kingdom in fact without having any other protective features which cannot be dispensed with by animals living an isolated life its color renders it conspicuous to its enemies and the lofty nest of many species or conspicuous in the meadows and forests it is not protected by a horde carapace and stinging apparatus however dangerous when hundreds of stings or plunged into the flesh of an animal is not of a great value for individual defense while the eggs and larvae of the aunts dainty for a great number of the inhabitants of the forest and yet the aunts in the thousands are not much destroyed by the birds not even by the aunts eaters and they are dreaded by most stronger insects when through well emptied a bag full of aunts in a meadow he saw that the crickets ran away abandoning their holes to be sucked by the aunts the grosshoppers and the crickets fed in all directions the spiders and the beaters abandoned their prey in order not to become of the wasp taken by the aunts after a battle during which many aunts perished for the safety of the commonwealth even the swiftest insects cannot escape and for all often so better flies nuts flies and so on surprised and killed by the aunts their force is in mutual support and mutual confidence and if the aunt apart from the still higher developed termite stands at the very top of the whole class of insects for its intellectual capacities if its courage is only equal by the most courageous vertebrates and if its brain to use Darwin's words is one of the most marvelous atoms of matter in the world perhaps more so than the brain of men is it not due to the fact that mutual aid has entirely taken the place of mutual struggle in the communities of aunts the same is true as regards to the bees these small insects which so easily might become the prey of so many birds and whose honey has so many admirers of animals from the beetle to the bear also have known of the protective features derived from mimicry or otherwise without which an isolated living insect hard liquid escape wholesale destruction and yet owing to the mutual aid we practice they obtain the wide extension which we know and the intelligence we admire by working in common they multiply their individual forces by resorting to a temporary division of labour combined with the capacity of each bee of the kind of work when required they attain such a degree of well-being and safety as no isolated animal can ever expect to achieve however strong or well-dorm it may be in the combinations they are often more successful than men when he neglects to take advantage of a well-planned mutual assistance thus when a new swarm of bees is going to live a hive in search of a new abode a number of bees will make a preliminary exploration si they discover a convenient dwelling place say an old basket or anything of a kind they will take possession of it clean it and guard it sometimes for a whole week till the swarm comes to settle therein but how many human settlers will perish in new countries simply for not having understood the necessity of combining their efforts by combining their individual intelligences they succeed in coping with adverse circumstances par la exhibition par la parisie qui poursuivait avec leur prospérité le chuteur de la plaine qui est installée dans la plaine de leur hive d'ailleurs ils se déclenent de la placidité et de l'amour de la combattance avec beaucoup de writer sur la plaine et de nos animaux les centrières qui ont l'entrée à la plaine ont pu dévier les bées qui tentent d'entrer les bées qui viennent de la plaine ou de la plaine surtout s'ils viennent de la plaine ou de jeunes individuels qui peuvent facilement aller à la plaine il n'y a pas plus de warfare qu'il est strictement requiert la sociabilité de les bées est le plus instructif comme prédacteur et la lésie continue d'exister entre les bées aussi et réappire chaque fois que leur groupe est favori par des conséquences c'est bien connu à la vie de leurs travailleurs et que les périodes de la vie et des périodes d'une réplique de nourriture lead à une augmentation de la plaine quand notre corps est dans et il reste mais petit à notre plaine et la plaine de la plaine devient de plus fréquent et sur les bées avec nous on voit que les instincts antisociales continuent d'exister entre les bées aussi mais la sélection naturelle continuellement doit éliminer leurs bées parce que dans le long ronde la pratique de la solidarité prouve beaucoup plus des défis plus des défis que les développements des individus endurés avec les inclinations prédactrices non les bées non même les termites ont raison à la conception de la solidarité d'empêcher toute la spécificité dans cet respect ils évidemment n'ont pas atteint un degré de développement qui ne trouveront pas même entre nos politiciens scientifiques et leaders religieux leurs instincts sociales hardly extend beyond les limites de la haine mais les colonies de moins que 200 bées belongent à deux spécifiques secte et F Précilabrice close bracket a été décrit par Phorelle en Montendray et Montsalévé et Phorelle maintient que chaque membre de ces colonies reconnaissent chaque membre de la colonie et que ils sont tous dans la défense commune et en Pennsylvania Mr. Macook a vu toute la nation de 1.600 à 1.700 bées de la ronde et Mr. Bates a décrivé l'hélox de la termite couvert de la surface dans le campus un peu de la neige qui est le refuge de 2 ou 3 spécifiques et les meilleurs qui sont connectés par des galleries ou des arcades Open Footnote HW Bates le natureliste sur les Amazons second 59 sec Close Footnote un peu contre la amalgation de la division de la spécifique et de l'un des 30 bées d'animaux maintenant de plus d'animaux nous trouvons plus d'instances d'un soutien conscieux d'aide pour toutes les proposes mais nous devons reconnaître que notre connaissance dans la vie d'animaux reste très imperfecte un nombre de faxes a été accumulé par des observateurs 1er l'attention sur les fichiers est extremement curieux porté pour les difficultés d'observation et porté parce que aucune attention n'a encore été payée pour le sujet comme pour la Mamalia Kessler déjà remonte comment peu nous connaissons les manières de la vie beaucoup d'eux ou des nocturnes dans les habitants et d'autres concilient eux-mêmes et ces ruminants qui ont une range plus grande d'information et pourtant la vie sociale de beaucoup d'especies reste imperfectement encore nous ne devons pas compléter par les faxes de faxes comme vous le verrez de la suivante Je ne devais pas ouvrir les associations des femmes et des femmes pour réunir leur spring pour les provider avec le nourriture dans les premières étapes ou pour les honteurs en commun ce qui peut être mentionnée par la way de la vie sociale et des honteurs et qu'ils dérivent un intérêt spécial d'être les filles qui ont des ressources plus tendantes en développant les amies ou les animaux les plus grouillants il peut aussi être ajouté que la rarité des associations plus grande que ceci entre les honteurs et les filles de la vie qui sont les résultats de leurs modes de ressources peuvent aussi être réunis par le rapid increase de l'hôpital à quel point c'est important qu'il y ait des espèces qui vivent une vie intensif dans les régions habituelles même si les espèces les plus négres sont grégaires dans les pays inhabitants et dans les pays et dans les pays qui sont les plus négres pour les plus négres comme la protection d'hôpital et même l'environnement de la vie Odubou a déjà mentionné que les hôpital qui sont les plus négres et les plus négres et les plus négres et les plus négres par les plus négres l'cauldgue et la était l'un de les plus négres et les plus négres qui sont les plus négres et les plus négres et les plus négres s'en s'en et s'il disparaissait. En l'octobre, Sivetsov went to the place where to. He saw the eagles flying, concealed by one of the undulations of the steppe. He approached them and discovered that they had gathered around the corpse of the horse. The old ones, which as a rule begin the mill first, such as their rules of propriety, already were sitting upon the haystacks of the neighborhood and kept watch, while the younger ones were continuing the mill, surrounded by bands of crowds. From this and like observations, Sivetsov concluded that the white tail eagles combined for hunting, when they all have risen to a great height, they are enabled, if they intend to survey an area of at least 25 miles square. And as soon as anyone has discovered something, he warns the others, open foot note. And Sivetsov, periodical phenomena in the life of Mamalia, births and reptiles of Voronezh, Moscow, 1855, open bracket in Russian, closed bracket, closed foot note. Of course, it might be argued that a simple instinctive cry of the first eagle, or even its movements would have had the same effect of bringing several eagles to the prey. But in this case, there is strong evidence in favor of mutual warning, because the ten eagles came together before descending towards the prey. And Sivetsov had later on several opportunities of ascertaining that the white tail eagles always assembled for delivering a corpse, and that some of them, open bracket, the younger ones first, closed bracket, always keep watch while the others are eating. In fact, the white tail eagle, one of the bravest and best hunters, is a gregarious bird altogether, and Bram says that when kept in captivity, it very soon contracts an attachment to its keepers. Sociabilité is a common feature with very many other birds of prey. The Brazilian kite, one of the most impudent rovers, is nevertheless a most sociable bird. Its hunting associations have been described by Darwin and other naturalists, and it is a fact that when it has sails upon its prey, which is too big, it calls together five or six friends to carry it away. After a busy day when these kites retire for their night rest, to a tree or to the bushes, they always gather in bands, sometimes coming together from distances of ten or more miles, and they often are joined by several other vultures, especially the perc-nupters, their true friends do minices. In another continent, in the Transcarpian deserts, they have, according to Zaroudini, the same habit of nesting together. The sociable vulture, one of the strongest vultures, has received its very name from its love of society. They live in numerous bands, and decidedly enjoy society. Numbers of them join in their high flights for sport, they live in very good friendship, the variant says. And in the same cave, I sometimes found as many as three nests close together. Open footnote, ebrem, life of animals, fed 477, all quotations after the French edition. Close footnote, the yurubu vultures of Brazil are as or perhaps even more sociable than rooks. Open footnote, bates, page 151, close footnote. The little egyptian vultures, living close friendship, they play in bands in the air, they come together to spend the night, and in the morning they all go together to search for their food, and never does the slightest quarrel arise among them. Such is the testimony of Brem, who had plenty of opportunities of observing their life. The red-fluttered falcon is also met with in numerous bands in the forests of Brazil, and the kestrel, open bracket, Tynon-Colest, San-Cris, close bracket, when it has left Europe, and has reached in the winter the prairies and forests of Asia, gathers in numerous societies. In the steps of South Russia, it is open bracket, or rather walls, close bracket, so sociable that Nordman saw them in numerous bands with other falcons, open bracket, Falco-Tynon-Colest, F.Ozulan, and F.Subeteu, close bracket, coming together every fine afternoon about four o'clock, and enjoying their sports till late in the night. Avis set of flying all at once in a quite straight line, towards some determined point, and having reached it, immediately returned over the same line to repeat the same flight, open footnote, catalogue résonée des oiseaux de la faune fontique in the mid-ofs voyage abstract in Brem, 3rd, 360. During the migrations, birds of prey often associated, one flock, which H.C. Baum, so crossing the Pyrenees, represented a curious assemblage of eight kites, one crane, and a peregrine falcon. Open bracket, the birds of Siberia, 19-1, page 417, close bracket, close footnote. To take flights in flocks for the mere pleasures of the flight is quite common among all sorts of birds. In the Humber district especially, C.H. Dixon writes, those flights of Dunlins often appear open the mud flats, towards the end of August and remain for the winter. The movements of these birds are most interesting, as a vast flock wheels and spreads out or closes up, with as much precision as drilled troops, scattered among them, or many odd stints and sandalinks and rain plovers. Open footnote, birds in the northern shires, page 207, close footnote. It would be quite impossible to enumerate here the various hunting associations of birds, but the fishing associations of the pelicans are certainly worthy of notice for the remarkable order and intelligence displayed by these clumsy birds. They always go fishing in numerous bends, and after having chosen an appropriate bay, they form a white half circle in face of a shore and narrow it by paddling towards the shore, catching all fish that happen to be enclosed in the circle. On narrow rivers and canals, they even divide into two parties, each of which draws up on a half circle and both paddle to meet each other, just as if two parties of men dragging two long nets should advance to capture all fish taken between the nets when both parties come to meet. As the night comes, they fly to the resting places, always the same for each flock and no one has ever seen them fighting for the possession of either the bay or the resting place. In South America, they gather in flocks of from 40,000 to 50,000 individuals, part of which enjoy sleep while the others keep watch and others again go fishing. Open footnote, max 30, we are there Open bracket, Lebsig 1876, close bracket, pages 87, 103, close footnote And finally, I should be doing an injustice to the much-calaminated house paros. If I did not mention how faithfully each of them shares any food it discovers with all members of the society to which it belongs. The fact was known to the Greeks and it has been transmitted to posterity how a Greek orator once exclaimed Open bracket, I quote from memory, close bracket, why I am speaking to you a sparrow has come to tell to other sparrows that a slave has dropped on the floor a sack of corn and they all go there to feed upon the grain. The more one is pleased to find this observation of all confirmed in a recent little book by Mr. Gurney who does not doubt that the house paros always inform each other as to where there is some food to steal, he says. When a sack has been thrashed ever so far from the yard, the sparrows in the yard have always had their crops full of the grain. Open footnote, G. H. Gurney The house paro Open bracket, London 1885 Close bracket, page 5 Close footnote True, the sparrows are extremely particular in keeping their domains free from the invasions of strangers. Thus the sparrows of the Jordan du Luxembourg bitterly fight all over sparrows which may attempt to enjoy their turn of the garden and its visitors but within their own communities they fully practice mutual support though occasionally there will be of course some quarrelling even amongst the best friends Hunting and feeding in common is so much the habit in the feathered world but more quotations hardly would be needful it must be considered as an established fact As to the force derived from such associations it is self evident the strongest birds of prey are powerless in face of the associations of our smallest bird pets even eagles, even the powerful and terrible booted eagle and the martial eagle which is strong enough to carry away a hare or a young antelope in its claws or compelled to abandon their prey to bents of those beggars, the kites which give the eagle a irregular chase as soon as they see it in possession of a group of a good prey The cats will also give chase to the swift fishing hawk and rabbit of the fish it has captured but no one ever saw the cats fighting together for the possession of a precious stolen On the Cragallan island, Dr. Ques saw the girls to both focus the seahead and the sealers Pershu make them discode their food while on the other side the girls and the turns to drive away the seahead as soon as it came near to their abodes especially at nesting time Dr. Elliot Ques, birds of the Cragallan island in Smithsonian, Miscellaneous collections, volume 13 page 11, close footnote the little but extremist with flap wings open bracket, vanillaus Christatus close bracket boldly attack the birds of prey to see them attacking a bezzard a kite, a crow or an eagle is one of the most amusing spectacles that they are sure of victory and one sees the anger of the bird of prey in such circumstances they perfectly support one another and the courage grows with their numbers open footnote, brem fourth, 567 close footnote, the lap wing has well merited the name of a good mother with which the Greeks gave to it for it never fails to protect the aquatic birds from the attacks of their enemies but even the little white wagdills open bracket, mutasila alba close bracket, whom we well know in our gardens and whose whole length hardly attains 8 inches compel the sparrow hawk to abandon its hunt I often admire the courage and agility of the old brem root and I am persuaded that the falcon alone is capable of capturing any of them when a bend of wagdills has compelled a bird of prey to retreat they make the air resound with a triumphant cries and after that they separate they thus come together for the special purpose of giving chase to their enemy just as we see it when the whole bird population of a forest has been raised by the news that a nocturnal bird has made its appearance during the day and altogether birds of prey and small inoffensive singers set to chase the stranger and make it return to its concealment. What an immense difference between the force of a kite a buzzard or a hawk and such small birds as a meadow wagdill and yet these little birds by their common action and courage push superior to the powerfully winged and armed robbers in Europe the wagdills not only chase the birds of prey which might be dangerous to them but they chase also the fishing hawk rather for fun than for doing it any harm while in India according to Dr Jadon's testimony the jackdaws chase the goindakite for simple matter of amusement Prince Wyatt saw the brazilian eagle who beating a surrounded by numberless flocks of two corns and cast six open bracket a bird nearly akin to our rook bracket which mocked it the eagle he adds usually supports these insults very quietly but from time to time it will catch one of these mockers in all such cases the little birds though very much inferior in force to the bird of prey prove superior to it by their common action open foot note. As to the house paros a New Zealand observer Mr T.W. Kirk described as follows the attack of these impudent birds upon an unfortunate hawk he heard one day a most unusual noise as though all the small birds of the country had joined in one grand carrel looking up he saw a large hawk open bracket see guldji a carrion feeder close bracket being buffeted by a flock of sparrows they kept dashing at him in scores and from all points at once the unfortunate hawk was quite powerless at last approaching some scrub the hawk dashed into it and remained there while the sparrows congregated in groups around the bush keeping up a constant chattering and noise open bracket people read before the New Zealand Institute Nature October 10 1891 close bracket close foot note however the most striking effects of common life for the security of the individual for its enjoyment of life and for the development of its intellectual capacities are seen in two great families of birds the cranes and the paros the cranes are extremely sociable and live in most excellent relations not only with their congeniers but also with most aquatic birds they are really astonishing so also their intelligence they grasp the new conditions in a moment and accordingly their sentries always keep watch around a flock which is feeding or resting and the hunters know well how difficult it is to approach them if men have succeeded in surprising them they will never return to the same place without having set out once a guld scout first and a party of scouts afterwards and when the reconnitering party returns and reports that there is no danger a certain group of scouts is sent out to verify the first report before the whole ban moves with king red species the cranes contract real friendship and in captivity there is no bird savor also sociable and highly intelligent parrots which enters into such real friendship with men it sees in men not a monster but a friend and the others to manifest it bram concludes from a wild personal experience the crane is in continual activity from early in the morning till late in the night but it gives a few hours only in the morning to the torse of searching its food, chiefly vegetable all the remainder of the day is given to society life it picks up small pieces of wood or small stones, throws them in the air and tries to catch them it bends its neck, open its wings dancer jumps, runs about and tries to manifest by all means its good disposition of mind and always it remains graceful and beautiful open footnote, bram 4th 671 sec close footnote, as it lives in society it has almost no enemies and though bram occasionally saw one of them captured by a crocodile he wrote that except the crocodile he knew no enemies of the crane it is choose all of them by its provident prudence and it attends as a rule a very old age no wonder that through the maintenance of a species the crane need that rear en numerous of spring it usually hatches but two eggs as to its superior intelligence it is sufficient to say that all observers are unanimous in recognizing that its intellectual capacities remind one very much of those of men the over extremist sociable bird the parrot stands as unknown at the very top of the whole feathered world for the development of its intelligence bram has so admirably sum up the manners of life of the parrot that I cannot do better than translate the following sentence except in the pairing season they live in very numerous societies or bends they choose a place in the forest to stay there and then they start each every morning through their hunting expeditions the members of each bend remain faithfully attached to each other and they share in common good or bad luck all together they repair in the morning to a field or to a garden or to a tree to feed open foods they pass centuries to keep watch over the safety of the whole bend and are attentive to their warnings in case of danger all take to flight mutually supporting each other and all simultaneously return to their resting place in a word they always live closely united the angel society of other birds as well in India the jays and crows come together from many miles round to spend the night in company with the parrots in the bamboo thickets when the parrots start hunting they display the most wonderful intelligence prudence and capacity of coping with circumstances take for instance a bend of Waikaredu in Australia before starting to plant the acorn field they first send out a reconitring which occupies the highest trees in the vicinity of the field while other scouts push open the intermediate trees between the field and the forest and transmit the signals if the report runs alright a score of cacaduce will separate from the bulk of the land take a flight in the air and then fly towards the trees nearest to the field they also will scrutinise the neighbourhood for a long while and only then will they give the signal for general advance after which the whole bend starts at once and plunder the field in no time distance settlers have the greatest difficulties in beguiling the prudence of the parrots but if men with all his odd weapons has succeeded in killing some of them the cacaduce becomes prudent and watchful but they henceforward bottle all start a jam spun foot note or lindenfeld in their zoologist gotten, 1889 close foot note there can be no doubt that it is the practice of life in society which enables the parots to attain that very high level of almost human intelligence l'intelligence humaine et les ressources humaines que l'on connait. Les intelligences hautes ont induit le meilleur naturaliste pour décrire des espèces, c'est-à-dire l'un des grecs parats, comme les mecs de l'homme. À cause de leur attachement mutual, il est connu que l'un des parats a été tué par un hunter, les autres se battent sur le corps de leurs camarades, avec des complètes et eux-mêmes pour les victimes de leur friendship. Comme Audubon a dit, et quand deux parats captifs, selon les deux espèces différentes, ont contracté une friendship mutuale, l'accident de la mort de l'un d'autres deux amis a parfois été suivi par la mort du griffage et de l'autre de l'autre. Il n'est plus évident que dans les sociétés, ils trouvent plus de protection que les possibles que l'on puisse trouver dans le développement idéal de Big & Claw. Beaucoup d'hommes de prêts attaquent n'importe les petits espèces parats, et Bram est absolument correct de dire que les parats, comme il dit aussi des crênes et des monchés associables, n'ont pas l'air d'avoir n'importe les ennemis à l'aide d'un homme. Et il dit que c'est probablement que les parats, succédés à l'âge de l'âge, ne puissent pas mourir de l'ennemis de n'importe les ennemis. Seuls les hommes qui poursuivent encore plus d'intelligence supérieurement et des armes, aussi qui sont dégâts de l'association, succent en porche à les détruire. La très longue gévité, ce qui s'appuie comme résultat de leur vie sociale, ne pourrait pas dire les mêmes regards sur leur mémoire, ce qui doit aussi être favorisé dans leur développement par la société. La vie et la longévité, accompagnées par un bon plaisir, de la santé et de la faculté mentale, délèvent l'âge de l'âge de l'âge. Vu que la guerre de l'un contre l'autre n'est pas l'âge de la nature, l'âge de l'autre est aussi l'âge de la nature que l'âge de l'autre. Et ce âge de l'âge sera encore plus appareil quand nous avons analysé des parats de l'association, et des parats de la Mamalia. Un peu d'intérêt à l'importance de l'âge de l'âge de l'âge pour l'évolution de l'animal, a déjà été donné dans les pages prévenus, mais leur porte de l'âge sera encore mieux appuyée quand, après avoir donné un peu plus d'illustrations, nous devrions être élevés présentement pour établir leurs conclusions. La fin de l'endroit. Récordé par Enko. Si vous voulez me envoyer un email, vous pouvez me atteindre à enkobilal.com. C'est E N K O B I L A L A P Y A H O D C O M.