 The baitfish industry in the United States began in the late 1940s. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service promoted the culture of fish to replace the indiscriminate harvest of wild minnows from natural waters. Today, more than half of all baitfish sold in the United States are farm raised. A substantial industry has grown to meet that demand. Currently, baitfish farming is the fourth largest aquaculture industry in the United States. The retail value of baitfish sold each year in North America has been estimated at $1 billion. Baitfish farming requires a substantial investment in ponds, holding facilities, and equipment. Labor requirements are higher than for many other cultured species. And above all, raising and selling baitfish requires excellent management and marketing skills to deal with the complex nature of the baitfish business. Three species comprise the majority of fish raised for bait in the South. The Golden Shiner, the Fathead Minnow, both the normal and the rosy red varieties, and the Goldfish. This video will cover the following steps in the production of these three species of fish. Facilities, Reproduction, Pond Management, Diseases, Pests and Problems, Harvesting, Holding and Transport, and Marketing. The vast majority of baitfish are produced in earthen ponds. Ponds for rearing golden shiners and fathead minnows are usually 10 to 20 acres in size. Goldfish ponds are normally less than 5 acres in size. The objective in feeder goldfish production is to keep fish at a small and more valuable size. This is difficult to do in larger ponds. Ponds constructed for baitfish production are similar to those used for raising other fish. Most ponds are 4 to 6 feet deep. Main levees are graveled to allow for the harvest during inclement weather. Well water or groundwater is the best source of water for baitfish production. While streams or other surface waters could potentially be used, the water would need to be screened to prevent the entry of wild fish. Surface water may also be muddy or even contaminated with chemicals. Water requirements range from 25 to 50 gallons per minute per surface acre of ponds. The key consideration is that the quantity of water available should be sufficient to fill a pond in 7 to 10 days. Each pond is equipped with a drain. Either an inside or outside swivel drain is commonly used. Drain pipe diameter should be large enough to empty a pond within one week. Pond culture of baitfish requires specialized equipment. Sains, Sain reels, aerators, pumps, feeders, and hauling trucks with aerated tanks are all used in baitfish production. Baitfish farming also requires a specialized facility known as a minnowshed or grading shed. Here fish are graded and prepared for shipment. The minnowshed consists of an open or enclosed building with a concrete floor. Inside the shed there are a number of concrete vats. Each with a capacity of 1500 to 2000 gallons of water. Vats are constructed so that the floor slopes towards the drain, allowing vats to be emptied completely. Water depth is maintained by a stand pipe. The facility needs a plentiful source of clean well water supplied by a 4 inch well or larger. The quantity of water available in gallons per minute should be equal to about 1% of total vat capacity. Many baitfish farms are in areas where the groundwater contains large concentrations of iron. For fish to survive while in the minnowsheds iron must be removed from the water supply to the vats. The most common type of iron filtration system is the pressurized sand filter. Well water cascades through a series of screens and is aerated. After settling, water is pumped through a sand filter. Iron particles are trapped in the sand filter and filtered water is pumped to the minnowshed. The filter units are back flushed periodically to remove accumulated iron. These filter systems ensure a reliable supply of clean, cool well water for holding fish. Minnowsheds must have an aeration system. Older facilities may use 2 to 4 electric agitators per vat. Newer facilities used forced air blower systems with 4 or more air stones per vat. Some producers may use both systems, especially on hot, muggy summer days. All minnowsheds must be equipped with a backup electric generation system. The system usually consists of a gasoline powered generator. Some generators must be manually operated while others start automatically when electric power is lost. The Golden Shiner and Goldfish have similar spawning habits. In nature, they scatter large numbers of adhesive eggs over aquatic vegetation. On farms, man-made spawning mats are often substituted for the plants. The fathead minnow spawns in a different manner. Eggs are placed on the undersides of submerged or floating objects in the water. There are two major propagation methods for goldfish and golden shiners. The wild spawn method and the egg or mat transfer method. The wild spawn method requires the least amount of labor and management. During late winter or early spring, ryegrass is planted around the pond edges and allowed to grow. In the spring, the pond is partially flooded and broodfish are stocked. Goldfish begin spawning when the water temperature reaches 65 degrees Fahrenheit. Gold and shiners will start spawning at 70 degrees. Allowing fish to wild spawn provides little control over the number and size of young that are produced in each pond. Small fish are cannibalistic and will feed on younger fry. And since spawning, hatching and growth occur in the same pond, parasites and diseases can spread from adults to young. For these reasons, the majority of golden shiners and goldfish producers use the mat transfer method. Ponds are kept free of vegetation and spawning mats are placed in brood ponds. Matts are transferred daily to rearing ponds where they are placed in shallow water around pond edges. There are several different types of spawning mats. Matts may be in the form of small rectangles that are staked or floated along the side of brood ponds. Other farms use mats made from 10 to 12 foot sections of mat material. A mat machine has been developed to mechanically lay and pull 300 foot sections of spawning mat. After eggs hatch, mats are washed and dried before being used again. The eggs hatch in 3 to 7 or more days depending on temperature. Resulting stocking rates vary from several hundred thousand to several million fry per acre. Ponds may also be stocked using the fry transfer method. All of the rearing ponds on a farm cannot be matted out during the spawning season. Since remaining baitfish inventory from the previous year are being sold throughout the spring season. Once fish reach about three fourths of an inch in size, they are hardy enough to withstand being transferred to other ponds. Fry numbers are estimated volumetrically. Stocking rates vary depending on how soon fish are needed for the market. Generally, golden shiners are stocked at 50,000 to 200,000 fish per acre, while goldfish may be stocked at 1 half to 2 million fish per acre. Reproduction of fathead minnows is done by the wild spawn method. Spawning material is placed in a pond to serve as nest sites. Many producers use pieces of poly tarp, lengths of poly irrigation pipe, wooden pallets, cardboard, or plywood. Fathead minnows start spawning in the spring at water temperatures of 60 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit and may continue to spawn until early July. Grading brood stock allows for the separation of larger males from the smaller females and permits stocking of brood fish at a ratio of 5 females to each male. Fathead minnow ponds may also be stocked by the fry transfer method. Fry are caught and transferred to other ponds at rates of 50,000 to 300,000 fish per acre. Fatheads raised for the feeder market are stocked at even higher densities. Baitfish farming is much more complex than simply producing the most fish or the biggest fish. The key to a successful operation is having sufficient quantities of desirable sizes of fish at the right times of year. Fish size is regulated through adjusting stocking density and feeding rate in each pond. Farmers use skills developed from years of experience to hold fish at desirable market sizes while keeping fish healthy. Good pond management practices are essential to fish health and survival. Baitfish farming requires careful management of production ponds including fertilization, feeding, inventory control, maintenance of good water quality and fish health checks. Fertilization has a two-fold purpose. It establishes a bloom in the water of natural food consisting of millions of microscopic plants and animals. The bloom also shades the pond bottom and prevents the development of nuisance aquatic vegetation. Ponds are fertilized with both organic and inorganic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers such as cotton seed meal, rice bran, or animal manures are used mainly for fertilization of fry ponds. Inorganic fertilizers containing phosphorus and nitrogen are applied in intervals during the warmer months to maintain pond blooms. Producers who use the MAT transfer method fertilize ponds near the time that eggs are expected to hatch. The bloom provides essential natural food for the newly hatched fry. A bloom can also be established by pumping water from a fertile pond nearby. This can provide a ready source of food for fry, although waters from established ponds varies in suitability for fry. Fry density is checked to determine hatching success. Fry from ponds that are overstocked will be transferred to other ponds for grow out. Feeding begins when fry are first seen swimming freely. The first feed is usually a 48% protein meal fed several times a day at a rate of 1 pound per acre application. After several weeks, fry are switched to a 33% protein meal at 2 to 5 pounds per day per acre. This is continued until the fish reach about 3 fourths of an inch in size, which is usually around 6 weeks. At this time, producers switch to crumbles or to small diameter pellets. The protein level should be at least 29%. The feeding rate is gradually increased to 10 to 20 pounds per acre per day for golden shiners and fathead minnows. Goldfish are often fed at rates 2 to 3 times higher. Most producers use mechanical feeders to distribute feed to their fish. A blower is used to produce a stream of air that propels feed out over the pond surface. Feeding is an essential management tool that allows an experienced producer to estimate fish size and number in each pond. This is critical since in order to be a reliable supplier, a producer must know at all times how many fish of various sizes he or she can provide at any given time. Usually, only a portion of the fish in a pond are harvested at any one time and ponds are harvested as frequently as needed to supply orders. However, reducing the number of fish in a pond through partial harvesting increases the growth rate of the remaining fish. For this reason, the producer must be constantly aware of pond inventory. Maintaining water quality is important. Producers learn to manage water quality by managing the plankton bloom in a pond. Changes in color or dark streaks in the water may signal problems ahead. From mid-June on through the summer, ponds are checked daily in the early morning for signs of low oxygen or disease. Many baitfish producers have begun to install permanent aeration in their ponds. Aerators are used at a rate of half a horsepower per acre. Larger aeration units are used in emergency situations. Baitfish farming involves raising literally millions of tiny fish. Small fish are particularly vulnerable to all kinds of predators. And diseases are a problem common to all cultured fish. It has been estimated that less than 10 to 15 percent of the golden shiners laid as eggs one year will survive until the following year. Baitfish farmers keep a careful eye on fish health. Healthy fish are essential to a producer since fish must be in good condition to start with in order to provide a lively bait for the ultimate consumer at the end of the marketing process. Small protozoan parasites that affect fish gills cause the majority of problems in baitfish. Many farmers request regular health checks of their fish in order to ensure product quality. Controlling nuisance aquatic insects presents another problem for baitfish producers. In the absence of approved insecticides, farmers reduce losses by filling ponds as rapidly as possible before stocking mats or fry. Insect problems increase as the spawning season progresses. While baitfish are extremely attractive to bass, crappie, and other game fish, they are also sought after by many other predators. Bird depredation is a major concern for all fish farmers. Baitfish farmers not only lose fish to herons, cormorants, and diving ducks, but also to opportunistic fish eaters such as blackbirds and snakes that gather to feed on spawning minnows. Farmers spend considerable time and money to move birds from their ponds. As with other types of farming, weeds can be a problem for baitfish farmers. Cattails and other emerged plants may grow up in and around ponds. Submerged weeds and filamentous algae can become problems as well. Finally, maintenance of a pond levee is a concern for fish farmers. Winds and waves erode pond levees, and ponds must be repaired on a regular basis. Baitfish farmers harvest fish from ponds regularly to obtain healthy fish for market. Often, only a portion of the fish in a pond are sained in order to obtain the necessary quantity of fish. In the winter, fish may even be harvested from beneath a cover of ice. Fish are usually baited into a corner of a pond with sinking feed. Once fish accumulate in the area, a sain is used to surround and capture the fish. Harvesting is a critical step in baitfish production. Great care must be taken to avoid stressing the fish. Small mesh, knotless nylon nets are used to avoid injury to the fish. Golden shiners in particular have loose scales that are easily dislodged. Fish that are damaged in any way cannot be sold. Fish are gathered up in the sain, and the net is staked out to form a bag. Fish are transferred to the hauling truck by bucket. Each bucket contains approximately 25 pounds of fish. The quantity of fish being loaded is measured by counting the number of buckets. Fish are held in the sain for less than an hour to avoid damage to the fish. Hauling tanks are equipped with agitators or an oxygen system to keep fish in good condition for the trip to the minnowshed. Fish are unloaded into vats at the minnowshed where they will be grated and sold. Baitfish are held in vats at the minnowshed before transport to market. Typical vats can hold around 350 pounds of fish. Salt is often added to the vat water at a rate of 60 pounds per vat to form a 0.5% salt solution. Fish from ponds are left alone for the first 24 hours to allow fish to empty their digestive tracts and to harden them. Hardening refers to the acclimation of the fish to vat conditions and the subsequent increased ability of fish to withstand handling. Vats are completely flushed once or twice a day with fresh water in order to prevent the buildup of ammonia. Fish are grated on the second day. Most farmers use drag graters consisting of panels with evenly spaced parallel bars which are drawn through the tank. Smaller operations may use box graters which float in the tank. Space between bars is measured in intervals of 1.64 of an inch. Minnows are usually grated into several size categories depending on the species. For example, golden shiners are usually classified as jumbos, mediums, and crappie bait. Grading procedures may vary among farms depending on market requirements. After two days in the vats, fish are ready for transport. Transportation of bait fish requires great skill and experience. Fish are loaded into hauling tanks at rates of 1 to 2 pounds per gallon. The weight of fish is estimated by the water displacement method. Fish are dipped into 5 gallon buckets or into tanks mounted on forklifts. A large hauling truck may carry up to 10,000 pounds of fish. Liquid oxygen is used to maintain adequate dissolved oxygen levels in the hauling tanks. Flow meters allow the driver to check the delivery of oxygen during transit. Ice may also be added to keep the water cool. Hauling is best done at a water temperature of around 61 degrees Fahrenheit. With proper equipment and care, fish can be safely transported across the country. Small quantities of fish may also be shipped in plastic bags with oxygen. Air transport allows producers to ship directly to their customers. Marketing is the most important and most difficult part of the bait fish business. Potential producers are encouraged to develop a realistic marketing plan before beginning production. There are two major markets for minnows. The traditional market is providing fish for use as bait. Golden shiners and fathead minnows are the predominant species sold as bait. Larger goldfish can also be sold as trotline bait. The second market is for the feeder fish. Small goldfish and rosy red fathead minnows are sold through the aquarium trade and are used by hobbyists for feeding carnivorous fish. Even with a sound marketing plan, bait fish sales can fluctuate widely. The weather plays a major role. It is said that the weather on four or five weekends in the spring can determine the profitability of a bait fish operation for the entire year. Rainy spring weather can dramatically reduce sales of bait fish. Demand for bait changes with the season. Small minnows for crappie bait are primarily sold in the spring. Medium to large bass and trotline bait are popular in summer months. Fall markets call for even larger minnows, needed to catch largemouth bass, striped bass, and striped bass hybrids. Ice fishing accounts for a majority of winter markets. Large minnows are desired. A successful producer has the right size bait at their correct time of year. Bait fish farmers may sell their fish directly to the public or sell fish wholesale to another farm or distributor. Large operations sell to many out-of-state distributors. Bait fish are hauled to regional holding facilities for distribution to individual bait shops on a weekly or bi-weekly sales route. These distributors may also supply other live bait, such as worms and crickets. The feeder fish market has grown significantly in recent years. Producing feeder fish is particularly demanding because fish must be kept small, less than two inches in length. Fish that become too large have little value. Distribution of feeders is handled through a small number of firms that supply fish on a national level. The future for baitfish culture is not without challenges. Artificial lures, lack of new reservoir construction, competition from wild-caught baitfish, and a reduction in the number of retail bait shops have limited the growth of new markets for baitfish. And numbers of fish-eating birds have increased dramatically. Fortunately, farm-raised baitfish offer a number of advantages that ensure future markets for the farm-raised fish. Fish are produced under controlled conditions. Water quality and environmental conditions are monitored to maintain healthy fish free from contaminants. And fish produced on farm are of known species and sizes. In summary, baitfish farming provides a year-round supply of quality bait, meeting the needs of recreational fishermen and women across the nation.