 We have looked at two types of categories that is, one is lexical category and the other is functional category. Lexical categories are words in sentences and you can see those categories, they have their physical appearances and then we looked at functional categories and we saw that some of such categories have their physical appearances and some of them do not have. It is not that all of them that is agreement features like number, person and gender and tense aspects and some more will never appear and it is also not true that if they appear once they are going to appear all the time. So, the same thing may appear sometimes and may not appear at other time is this much making sense to everybody are you with me so far and then we have seen examples of all these things like on a if we have a word let us say proper name the marker of gender is not visible on that. For example, if you have a name like Raju or Sandeep there is no visibility of gender on that. However, sometimes you may see or you may assign certain markers as gender marker on a word like ladka or pankha or kamada. At the same time you can look at other words like save ghar if we are talking about Hindi then such nouns do not categorically show their gender markers. At the same time when we looked at tense in a language like English or for that matter in other languages too if you have a simple sentence like I am a doctor or I am a student you have a tense marker you have a word that you can attest as tense marker at the same time when you say other things like I eat pizza or I live in Chennai I like movies in such sentences the gender tense is not categorically visible and we have seen examples of these things. The point is there are several points to keep in mind first alone lexical words do not make words so when we make a statements like this that you have on the screen like our sentences collection of random words the answer to such questions are expectedly no then if not then what are the required component of a sentence when we talk about required components what we mean is we are talking about some visible invisible interplay of functional categories that is the point we are trying to make and those are the things which make sentence this is why sometimes you may have a pretty long sentence and still could be called just one sentence and you may have just a word go or come or sit could also be a sentence because they fulfill the requirements that we expect functional categories on a in a sentence to fulfill clear alright we we also saw that there are some sentences which do not have tense at all like when we say a sentence like come this sentence does not have a have tense on it these are called tense less sentences and with the examples of sentences with tense sentences with visible tenses sentences with invisible tenses and sentences which do not have tense we have seen that all such things and by all such things I mean tense and aspects and then when we combine the interplay or the role of agreement features in a sentence put together when we put everything together we see that all such activities take place around verbs in a sentence therefore verbs are called powerhouse in a sentence that is everything is controlled by verb therefore verbs are the most significant lexical part of you part of a sentence remember we have we when we talked about sentences for the first time and even now I gave you an example we established that if we say just go that constitutes a sentence you may put 200 words together if there is no verb and no agreement taking place they do not make a sentence this is the reason why it works that way so can I can I take it at this time that we understand certain we understand role of different types of operations and different types of relationships between lexical categories in a sentence can we take this much right now okay all right we have we have already looked at the types of two types of negation and I wanted you to see this with the I wanted you to look at these examples in five and six just to refresh your memory that these things help us establish whether its sentence has tense or not because a particular type of negation marker can occur only with the tenseless sentences namely math we have looked at some Tamil examples and I am sure you must have thought about examples of some other languages as well right there are there are certain other things where we did not come but I can tell you while moving ahead but I need to move to some other point about a sentence today however this point is going to be crucial little later okay and I will establish why I am showing you this sentences but can you take a look at these sentences carefully even those who do not speak Hindi could understand these sentences please take a look at them carefully what is the first sentence and you speak loudly what is the first sentence you said you will buy an ice cream right what's the what's the reply in sentence 8 what did the sentence literally mean when did I say right but what's the what's the what am I supposed to understand out of this what's the implication of this I didn't say so or I don't remember saying that the point is when you see the reply right and the reply is many Kavkaha do you see any negative element in the sentence if at all the sentence is a question sentence right when did I say so and and remember this is not about Hindi alone same thing applies in English when you say when did I say so means I didn't say so a question sentence gives you negative reading not necessarily a question sentence is going to give you negative reading all the time but in a context a question sentence gives a clear negative reading where there is no negation word there is no negation word in the sentence right when someone says come does it mean don't come right if you want to tell someone don't come then you have to say don't come that is you have to use the negative word now look at this sentence there is no negative word and it means no I and again again and again I will remind you like I have promised you I will keep reminding you about these things it's not something new that I am telling I mean I I may be saying something something that that you are looking at in a context for the first time but it's not that you don't know these you say these things many a times don't we say such things the the and if you look at a sentence in 9 it's not just about one question word when you can use several types of question words and still the meaning is negative even when we say use the question word where where did I say where did I say or where did I say so means I didn't I didn't say that right now it's just I just want you to look at the implications of replies and what such question sentences are capable of what's the implication involved in such such answers clear now I will I will I will talk about a little bit more about these implications little later okay now there is there is one more thing which I wanted to discuss before I come to the definition of syntax so there are two things in a sentence right two things that are important one is the word right and the other is what agrees with the word subject right we can call that roughly subject we have seen in the last couple of classes that sometimes subjects may be something which we do not usually think could be a subject right that is we have a different notion of a subject in our mind however when we take a look at a sentence take a careful look at a sentence we realize that the actual subject is something else and this actual or non-actual business begins only when we keep in mind that subjects are the elements that agree with the word right I am trying my best to talk about these complicated issues in simple terms I am trying my best not to use two technical terminology for for these things am I still making sense to you okay so looking at the same phenomena we derive that nouns that end up agreeing with verbs are subjects in one form of their definition right so we talked about subject and verb have you heard the word predicate what does this mean to you when someone says predicate rest part of the sentence rest part what which rest part I mean I mean leaving what sentence minus that is you will you want to say subject minus sentence or sentence minus subject everything is nice and everybody understand this thing have you heard this thing or you have read this somewhere you thought like that very good good and that is true subject minus everything else is is predicate now this is a nice definition but we need to understand the implication of this definition which is subject is not part of predicate please keep that thing in mind we will come back to this thing and it this particular assumption or or description has a huge role to play in many things that we are going to discuss so you can you can see now at least at this point why agreement has to take place between subject and the verb that is one element from within the predicate and one element outside the predicate and you have just established that because subject is not part of the predicate therefore it has to agree with agree only with subject see that okay so we now we know terms like subjects verbs predicate right at the same point before I before I move out of curiosity I want to check about one more term which is objects have we heard about that subject objects and verbs like we have been talking about them we have just introduced a new term predicate and I am so happy that you understand understand the notion of predicate how about how about objects anybody what is a sentence referring to it is a little bit vague type what lovely lovely something that the action is being done on right will be object these are these sound like very textbook type of definition I want you to expand them in such a way that people could understand without books and all that but but you are you are too close we just need to say little bit more okay so hold on with this dip with these definitions where is predicate where where is object located is it part of the predicate or outside the predicate part of the predicate now it follows from what you just said if predicate is everything except subject then object has to be part of predicate right no no surprises here and if it is part of the predicate then we come to this action and all these things little later if it is part of the predicate it is around verb and in still simpler terms we can say objects are more closely related to verbs that is the existence of an object depends on the nature of the word whether an object will be allowed in a sentence or not by allowed I mean whether a subject whether an object will be required in a sentence or not depends on nature of the word right and and again with this we will need to talk about what do we mean by nature of verbs alright so hang on to that little bit more on the relationship between subjects and predicates relationship between verbs and their objects and nature of verb we discussed little later okay let me let me talk about something that I want to introduce to you and then bring in those notions and move forward together okay as you know we started to understand principles and parameters of natural language right so far things that we have been discussing they are part of they are part of principles and parameters in the sense that a nice background on of such helps us understand how principles and parameters play in language how principles and parameters really work in language understand we have been able to understand in a better way notions of things like knowledge of language and principles of economy okay we we can understand notion of knowledge of language only when we understand how we acquire language right and before we understand how we acquire language it is imperative for us to know what is it that we acquire how does it really work beginning from how how we begin speaking sounds and then how they work together in a sentence in a in a in a word understand this so this is why we have spent little bit time on such things what what I want to say this is this is not an apology to why we have spent so much time on that this is just to bring you at this point to appreciate more of what we are going to be discussing point number two we can appreciate the the appreciate an understanding of principles and parameters more with more at the level of sentences right so now we are at the level of sentence now we understand what we what we know about sentences so far the things that we have established about sentences I do not mean to repeat them again okay such such an understanding in short is called syntax okay which is again it is a set of rules operating at the level of sentences okay so principles and parameters are visible more apparently at the level of sentences and this is what we are going to be looking at from now now onwards and again for understanding such principles and how they operate it is important to understand the relationship between subjects and objects and the moment we want to understand the relationship between subjects and objects we first need to know what subjects and objects are right the more the more clarity you have about these things the better appreciation of these things develop now onwards alright so look at look at these these things these are fragments aren't they and even in the star marks before these fragments indicate that they are not good combination of fragments this star represents ungrammaticality or unacceptable in this study of language okay so everywhere now onwards you are going to see a star either before a word or before a before a small fragment or before in terms of entire sentence which means it's not an acceptable sentence so see these fragments are not acceptable not good if I ask you the question why this is pretty simple to answer this is they are not in right order right this is what we want to discuss what is right order and how do we know about right order how elements must be put in a particular order is part of principles and parameters determine that which is the first one must be how are we going to remove the stars from there in the garden why that's the parametric adjustment of English that in a language like English and I am saying English because I don't want to say more more things about it in a language like English an element which we call preposition must precede the now okay must precede the now so we must say in garden then the question is if we say in garden the still not a good string can we say the in garden still not a good string so not good strings tell us what wrong syntax but more than that what does this tell us that that's the conclusion of that but what it tells us that there is in the proximity between the in garden right is a required fact is a required proximity for this string to be grammatical right anything or nothing can interrupt that proximity the moment you interrupt that proximity you are going to result into a grammaticality right so what governs this proximity that is why such proximity are so required such rules is what we call syntax any any question any difficulty and the same applies in rest of the examples too right this is this is one sentence right fragments of one sentence and if we put it it's not a complicated sentence all of us know this sentence if you put it how do we put it so that the sentence will be grammatical children are playing on the table in the garden right now children are playing on the table in the garden right if this sentence may not be a great sentence great sentence still you can you can ask your questions about certain meaning certain that is semantic aspect of this sentence how could several children play on a table in the garden but it could be possible they could be playing something which is possible for five children to play on a table right that is that is that is the possibility however making them and grammatical in different different in a smaller in a smaller fragments help us understand the requirement of proximity of their elements so it is it is not a coincidence that we arrange words in a particular order in a particular language and when we are looking at the order of words in a sentence only the order of verb is not important of course that is important in the sense that verbs in a language like English must be in the middle of the sentence that is English is not a word final language and it must be in the middle of the sentence actually now we can say it in a better way we can say the verbs must precede the object or objects must follow the words in English therefore they become verb medial language our languages are verb final the moment we say verb final it means objects must precede the verb it is it is the mirror image relationship between or mirror mirror image difference between English and Hindi verbs follow in English sorry verbs follow objects in English in our languages verbs precede their objects in English same thing applies to prepositions prepositions precede nouns in English prepositions follow nouns in our languages right and many such languages such are parametric variations and they are not the only parametric variations and they are the parametric variation at the level of arrangement of words we will talk about more of them but it is much clear that besides verbs other elements also require proximity some of the elements can allow disruption in their proximity and some are not going to allow but again we will look at all these things little later so that is about syntax what does syntactic knowledge mean syntactic knowledge very closely refers to what we have been talking about knowledge of language or at least syntactic knowledge is also part of knowledge of language but what does this mean in particular look at look at it though the first thing that this it guarantees us that we can understand and produce an infinite number of sentences that we have never heard before we have this capacity alright what is the most fundamental property of a sentence we have just seen most fundamental property of a sentence of course their elements and everything agreement right just one simple feature guarantees infinite sentences as long as your agreements are taken care of right say you can you can keep producing sentences and there is no limit on that we can produce or we can understand an infinitely long sentence not only we can produce we can understand an infinitely long sentence fuller stops define a sentence and if it is possible that you may have to leave that open you have seen a smallest sentence smaller smaller sentence possible and a smallest sentence possible but we do not know a long sentence it could be literally infinitely long the fact that we call it infinitely long assures you that you are never going to get an example of that right you can try and you have you see the see the example you can I mean this is just an example you can make a sentence of your own that that is the but that is the point also such rules such that is syntactic knowledge determines relationship between sentences and just now we talked about this and I told you that we will talk about subjects and objects and their and verbs little more with reference to nature of verbs later but look at look at this these are the verb is the same in the two sentences the last two sentences are not they right and nouns are also almost similar right what is the difference in these two sentences then meaning wise these two sentences are completely different right they are same set of people and same verb what causes the difference in the meaning then arrangement we we refer to that as arrangement of words because that is visible right what is not visible to us is the relationship between verb and the subject and verb and its objects verb and its object which is Mary in number one is an is a subject Mary in number two is the object therefore the difference in the meaning and whatever the meaning these two sentences give us that is lexical items are going to be grammatically related with the verbs and grammatical relations are called subjects and objects a word by itself is not inherently a subject or an object a word or a noun becomes a subject or object in a sentence a word maybe a subject in one sentence could be or could not be an object in the other one so these two terms like I asked you in the beginning have you heard these terms you have heard these terms but additionally I want you to know that these two terms mean grammatical relationship in a sentence right like it is like human beings one person could be brother right uncle father or if we are talking about women mother sisters all all kinds of relationship could be attested but depends on with reference to what right clear online so these are part of what we say syntactic knowledge there is one more point which I want you to know in order to understand syntax which is called independence of syntax okay it is called independence of syntax if you just look at these examples you can understand what we mean by independence of syntax right do you see these examples right the four look look at the first example have you heard this sentence before first sentence colorless green ideas sleep furiously this is one sentence which is completely meaningless probably this is the only meaningless sentence which has been discussed in the study of language more than the meaningful sentences okay every time you talk about independent independence of syntax this sentence comes up we can do the same thing with the other two sentences as well the rest of the two sentences tell you almost similar stuff what it means is you can have a clear syntax but still no meaning all right a sentence that is a good looking sentence what do we mean by a good looking sentence a grammatical sentence acceptable sentence may not have any meaning right do these sentences have any meaning they are completely grammatical aren't they colorless green ideas sleep furiously there is nothing wrong grammatically with this sentence a dog is a dog was reading a newspaper in the library a completely grammatical sentence have you seen this ever you may have seen such things in films but have you seen this thing ever no have you said this sentence before until now no but is this not a good sentence no refer back to just what we have seen on these slides that we have the ability to understand sentences that we have never said before or we have never heard before that is the capability which is making you understand these sentences I gave the question to dancing flies I mean it is it is not difficult to come up with these sentences the all you want to do is what the you are trying to retain the sentence grammaticality of the sentence but you are trying to remove the meaning from there in in normal speech when we speak when we interact in society that is called e-language remember so if you if we if you are talking about the difference between i-language and e-language then the role of independence of syntax is important in e-language independence of syntax does not have much meaning all right you made the point right i-language will tell you okay fine establish that syntax is independent which is independent of what independent of its semantics that is independent of its meaning in other words not necessarily a sentence which is grammatical must be meaningful also therefore if someone tells you meaning is arbitrarily assigned to sentences this is what is the proof of that the meaning is not something which makes a sentence grammatical you can say this is meaningless this doesn't mean anything you must have heard this thing several times this doesn't mean anything right but nobody says that thing and grammatically right so independence of syntax simply means the meaning is not a required component of a sentence to be grammatical right however these things keep keep keep the word of caution in your mind that these things these sentences may not be good in e-language that is we can make our point with these things but people don't speak these sentences right suppose you meet with your friends in the evening and you tell him even in the context you know what i saw a dog reading in the newspaper in the library what is going to happen if you say this thing to five different people they will make different kinds of conclusions about you right yeah has this person gone really mad or is he trying to spread some rumors or is he all kinds of people will make all kinds of conclusions right so these things have a different meaning in e-language so right now we are not talking about e-language and at this point i should also bring in the syntax and its properties that is syntactic knowledge and and the the other aspect of it which is independence of syntax all these things and whatever you are going to see more they are grammatical relations uh their principles they are all part of i-language okay they are all part of i-language and therefore in generative grammar which follows from chamskin syntax he only talks about i-language he makes it abundantly clear that look the language that i am discussing has nothing to do with the language in the real world that is e-language get my get my point all right now uh the this the strings in blue it just distorted strings therefore ungrammatical not if they they have nothing about they are not ungrammatical because they are not meaningful right so again this establishes that we must have sentences combined by rules that is the proximity of elements are outcome of certain rules of the the position of a post position the position of a determiner whether an element is going to allow a determiner or not all these things are going to be rule governed and such rules are going to tell you that how we well the story may not be the right word how we have language in our mind that is the language in our mind is not in form of either fragments or sentences this also if if this this also establishes that language is not stored as sentences okay language is an outcome of rules and that rule is called generative rules which is an outcome of generative capacity we do not have words and we do not have sentences made ready made sentences to be used remember I have asked you these questions do we plan every day that we are going to speak 200 sentences today remember imagine how difficult life could be right how many assignments do you have to submit every day sometimes nothing you may have just a quiz right imagine how our life is going to be if we have to make a list of 200 sentences every night before we go to sleep that we are going to speak tomorrow imagine a life but probably we can't imagine such a life right then if we if if we are to study how do we speak or how do we say so many things this is an example of that also I have shown you or at least we have discussed that human brain is empty nobody has found any evidence in it there has been huge attempt to study human mind from variety of perspectives not that they are not significant or anything rules of language or the study of language throws serious light on how human mind works that is at least these things retrospectively tells you that human mind comes up with language with application of rules and those rules are finite in nature remember I am not saying finite in number those rules are finite in nature but they have infinite capacity right finally this is how generative grammar is defined 1950 onwards this came into existence and it simply means a very explicit explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements results in a well-formed sentences defines the syntactic structure of a language so the structure underlying sentences is called syntactic structure we are going to see more of it from now onwards that is when we say more of it now we are not going to be we are we are not going to be looking at structure of sentences per se we are going to see structure of these underlying rules can you can you keep this thing in mind not the structure of sentences per se that is we are not we will be looking at sentences but not really the relationship between words or choice of lexical items or for example choice of a particular rule we are going to be looking at with the help of examples underlying a structure of syntactic rules which in turn become fundamental principles of language and we are going to begin with several components of it I think the first no not I think I know the first is x bar theory which is how do we guarantee that lexical items require proximity and how they are related with one another and how it is captured with the application of rules in human mind we are going to be looking at that all right that we begin from Thursday okay thank you