 Welcome back to NPTEL, the National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning being brought to you by the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institute of Science. We have completed one module in our series of lectures collectively entitled English Language and Literature. In the last module, we had talked about several things and among them, the important point that I would like to read through it is that this course is meant primarily for students in various engineering colleges in India, for whom it is necessary to have a basic knowledge of English as a language of communication. Along with it, it is also important that they know or they are acquainted with English literature and some aspects of literary theory and the English language. So, with that view, we talked about several things really in our first module. We talked about the scope of English studies. There is a transition being made from English as understood, as he is a hitherto understood and now we talk also about or largely sorry about English studies which also comprises not just English as it is understood, spoken the literatures of England, but also English as it is spoken, understood and its literatures in various parts of the world, not necessarily also only in the commonwealth nations. We also spoke about the alchemy of English when we base our lecture on the work done by Professor Braj Kachru. We also looked at the importance of cultural studies. So, what I am going to do here in the first few minutes of this lecture, we are going to do a recap of some of the things that we did in our last module. We saw that for instance, when we talk about the scope of English studies, we include broadly speaking three areas and these areas are literatures in English. Remember we are not saying English literature, we are saying literatures in English, English linguistics and English sociolinguistics. Now, these are by no means the only three domains which comprise the scope of English studies, but I had asserted in that particular lecture that these are nevertheless the core areas that we need to look at when we talk about the scope of English studies. Then further, we found that when we do courses on English studies or English language and literature, there are now increasing in emphasis put on or laid on areas such as journalism, the philosophy of language in general, literary theory and criticism, creative writing, electronic texts and publishing and hypertext, film and media and communication. So, the study of language particularly as in our case the English language does not stop only at literatures, does not stop at sociolinguistics etcetera, but also kind of percolates down to associated or kindred domains like journalism, media studies, even the philosophy of language follow communication and electronic publishing. So, these are the things that we found in our lecture on the scope of English studies. Then we also found very importantly that there is one domain or sub domain which we should not leave though leave out at least in our discussion of the scope of the study of English. We do not have discussions on those areas which are largely to do with proficiency in the English language and for instance English for special purposes and the use of English as a second language. So, these are not being brought here because there are also as far as proficiency is concerned on the use of English for special purposes etcetera concern or for very important issues like communicating better communication in English is concerned. You will have you just need to go to the NPTEL website to find that there are a few courses at least a couple of courses which address these very important needs in students. So, this part we are leaving out from our program or sorry from our course. Then we had also one we had one devoted one lecture to world Englishes and we found that when we talk about world Englishes there are it is not just a matter of you know accepting the fact that there are different variants of English all over the world. The idea of a queen's English or a standard English which was so as we will find was so important as far as say early modern English was concerned in Britain. In this case really there is a political need to recognize the existence of several Englishes. So, much so that we do not use the word world English or phrase word English we use the phrase word Englishes and here in this slide let us look at this slide we found that the whole issue of world Englishes has to be address as far as at least 6 areas are concerned. These areas are the history of English in different parts of the you know in a different parts of the world and we have in fact the last lecture in the current module is also takes a historical look at English in India. So, we have also the use of English in diasporas then variations of world Englishes they only the whole you know phenomenon of acculturation of English and to English. The issue of creativity and the changing of the language as far as creative texts are concerned and finally, and not the least the most important of them all according to me is the question of ideology. Ideology means as you know the way you perceive the world it is like you could say a set of lenses through which you perceive the world. So, these are some of the things we found that the world Englishes is not just about studying different variants of English, but also their histories their ideologies etcetera. So, this is what we did in lecture on world Englishes then we found also that there are other issues as far as English studies goes and these are to do with the whole idea of you know the issue of unity and commonality among the various world Englishes and how different their different instances of you know other non native English speakers and trying to resist what they feel is a sort of the personalization that occurs with you know the with an unproblematic acceptance or embrace so to speak of English. This is addressed also by linguists with a post colonial orientation. They also talk about how for instance you can look up the the Algerian activist Franz Fanon for instance and he talks about what happens to language as far as you know in this case this is French as far as a blacks emulating the French language when they go to France is concerned fine. Then also reworking how Englishes are English or Englishes rework the language and also concurrently the whole project entirely different project of trying to restore a non native English speaking countries trying to restore the various indigenous if I may use the word of a necular again if I may use the word languages in their respective countries and finally also the whole question of modernity. Does speaking English also mean modernity does it mean that we take its concepts and does it make it modern. Now these are really hugely again I would say contentious issues many scholars have many things to say about these but we brought this up in the last you know last lecture sorry last module just to give you an idea of how many things how many problematic things come into our discussion of world Englishes. Then we all we had one lecture on the rise of cultural studies in the study of English language and literature in the study of English studies right and then we refer to a quotation from the cultural studies the well-known cultural studies scholar Chris Barker and let us look at the slide here Barker in his book making sense of cultural studies has this to say that the machinery and operations of language the machinery and operations of language are central concerns and problems of language problems for cultural studies right. Indeed the investigation of cultures often been regarded as virtually interchangeable with the exploration of meaning produced symbolically through signifying systems that work like a language. Now the as you saw in the last module I think the rise of cultural studies was the last lecture in the module ok. So, how looking at entire cultures as systems that from where meanings are meanings emanate right how we also read cultures like languages do you understand. So, if one language you know has certain symbols in which you arrange in certain ways cultures are also seen as symbolically constituted as if they were languages ok. So, we also looked at this a part you know or this aspect new relatively new aspect of the rise of cultural studies as far as English studies is concerned. Then we also talked about discourses how this you know how languages are not just English languages are in general they are discourses right languages are discourses in the sense that they are objects they are structure systems within which your utterances are valid or invalid languages are also ideological systems and languages are texts this is what we found in our again in our lecture like lecture on the rise of cultural studies fine. So, today's lecture is and it is almost second overview of what we are going to do in the next 5 4 or 5 lectures. So, it is an overview of this module it is entitled it is an introduction to the history of the English language. And I will run you through some of the major things that we are going to talk about in the history you know in the various historical periods as far as the English language is concerned ending with English in India. But I would like to say make one thing clear at this point and which is that you know it is impossible to talk about everything regarding the history of a language you know when they packed into just a couple of lectures. So, I urge you those of you who may be interested in any one phase or interested in one aspect to go and look up some of the books that we shall be mentioning in you know during our lectures. Here essentially what my approach would be is to relate you know first is to tell you let you know about certain changes in the English language is a very basic and then to show you how changes in language do not happen in a vacuum they do not occur in a vacuum. There are definite social economic and political cultural factors which determine at least which influence changes in a language and also may you know language changes those changes again sort of you know in some sort of a feedback loop again you know influencing the social cultural economic movements of societies right. So, this is one of the things that I will try and bring to you because it is very important for us and we call this method more or less a diachronic method means chrono is time ok. So, over time so, this is over time how language you know a particular language has changed. So, please remember there as I said there are many ways different ways in which you can teach or you can learn about the history of the English language and also urge you to go through there are many other you know such presentations on YouTube they are many HTML files available on the net. So, you want to you know enrich yourself after having been through these basic lectures. So, English is as we saw I think in one in a lecture on introducing the English language per se I think it was in volume sorry in module 1 I think there was a lecture on yes the English language this is module 1 lecture 3 you could go back to that and then try and connect that lecture from you know the first module to all the lectures in this module. So, there we had found to look at this slide here that English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages it belongs particularly to is come from the Anglo-Friesian dialects it comes finally, to us from West Germanic right. So, this we first replace you know English we do not have English as we have it in the modern form today we did not have English in the history of English we know that we did not have English in the form that we have today. Today's English is modern English it is many would say global English right. So, we will see how English develops belongs to a certain family of languages and the reasons why and we will begin with the period old English. So, just quickly about again the status of English English is the official language in 51 countries according to sources and substantial native English speakers are found in 104 countries it is a third most spoken language and there are more than 600 million people who use English as a second or as a third language. So, we talked about the proliferation of English over the globe and we just provided some statistics in our lecture on the English language in the last module. So, again as always let us declare the text from where we shall be taking our points and these are AC bars a history of the English language, Charles Barbers the English language a historical introduction in Inrani Ghosh's edited volume history of English language a critical companion. Now, it is not necessary that these are the only text that you need to consult you can always have different sets of books, but I thought that it was important for us to kind of zoom in on the few text. So, as to have some sort of a guide also as you know some sort of a reference instead of bringing points from all various you know books or once a one point from a single book and you know it is always better for us to seek to a limited number of books when you talk about. Of course, time and again I shall be referring to other texts and I shall mention the names and authors of those texts. As always I shall also have you know occasion when I shall occasion to read extracts sometimes may be long extracts from certain texts and in that as far as academic ethics goes I shall every time declare that I am reading from this particular source. So, English we look at the history of the English language we need to divide the history of English into 3 or 4 major very major periods of the language and the first period is known as Old English right, which came about you know which language that came about after and you can say because of the conquest of England by marauding tribes. These tribes are known as the Angles, the Saxons and the Jews. Now, these are the places where they came from they the Jews came from Jutland, Saxons from Holstein, Angles from Schleswig and finally, the name English can be if you look at the slide the name English comes from one of the name of one of the tribes known as the Angles. Now, from Angles we have the name Englalend Engl and finally, English right. So, these were the oldest spellings and finally, we had the word or term English right. So, they were remember they were the old English period is inaugurated by the 3 marauding tribes that came from various parts of you know of Europe from and settled in England right replacing the older language pushing the older language into areas like Cornwall, Wales and Scotland right. Now, more details are to be found in the next lecture in these in this module which is on Old English. Now, the characteristics of Old English one of the first things that you note is a spelling and pronunciation of Old English pronunciation of Old English words differs from that of the obviously, from the modern equivalence again I would urge you may be to go to you know Google images or go to various sites on the net or even if you get these on books in books to see how now for copyright reasons I have not brought those images here, but you can you know any text bevel for instance is going to you have an idea of how different the pronunciation and spelling was even some of the letters as far as Old English the difference between Old English and modern English is concerned. Now, there was absence from words derived from Latin or French largely and the grammar is different the Old English is synthetic, but modern English is an analytic language more about this in our next lecture. Now, the distinction of course, of number of singular plural and case grammatical gender was not dependent upon considerations of sex is very important. For example, monamoon is masculine make then girl wave that is wife and chill that is child are new term. We understand woman in modern English as being a feminine gender, but there was a great difference I mean you compare modern English and Old English in terms of grammar in particular in terms of grammatical gender. Then the two very important texts in Old English are a bevel which is a folk epic and the seafarer which is a monologue and as Bo A. C. Bo who is one of the you know source texts here remarks the literature of the Anglo Saxons is fortunately one of the richest and most significant of any preserved among the early Tutors bevels now is available has been available for a long time. So, again those of you who are interested may want to just have a look at the kind of writing and language you find there even though obviously, it will be very difficult for you to understand the language or that version of English unless you are trained to read them. We also have translations and books on the King Alfred then we have the tragedy the wanderer war poems you know in for instance Anglo Saxon literature is considered to be one of among the richer phases of English. So, next in this journey of you know the history of English language we move on to another phase which is known as Middle English. Now we move we have moved over from Old English to Middle English which is generally considered to be there are side differences in date regarding scholars this usually understood to be within 1150 to 1500. So, Middle English really had different dialects by the time you can imagine the Anglo Saxon was language English as through Anglo Saxon was established and now there grew to be different dialects. So, by the time it is Middle English that is from 1150 onwards we find that there are at least four major dialects here and these are the northern dialect going by their geographical areas. The northern dialect the east middle and dialect west middle and dialect and southern dialect we find later on that east middle and begins to get grain more prominence you know in another say 100 years. Now again we let score from Charles Barber read from an extract from Charles Barber whose text on the history of the English language is another text with us. He talks about the Norman conquest the Norman conquest which marks the beginning of Middle English. The Norman French conquest from which this is one date from which we can we can you know we can mark separate two periods in the history of English language. He says Old English now again see whenever we demarcate historical periods it is it would be sort of naive on a part to think that historical periods are sort of apartheid that when you say end of Old English with the coming of the Norman French that Old English completely disappears and you know is replaced by Middle English it is not. So, obviously there are percolations there are remnants even as in an earlier age there may be you know some hints or glimmerings of a new language or new variant of a language emerging. So, let us read what Charles Barber says Charles Barber is one of you know pioneering again with AC bar one of the pioneering figures in this in the study of English the history of the English language. Now this is what he has to say let us look at this slide. Old English did not disappear overnight at the Norman conquest nor did it immediately stop being written for the West Saxon literary tradition was continued for a time in some of the great monasteries. But in the years following the conquest changes with had already begun to show themselves in pre conquest this is and this is exactly what I had said the glimmerings of changes may be seen may have been seen even before in age is said to have you know followed by another one. He says here let us look at this slide, but in the years following the conquest changes which had already begun to show themselves in pre conquest Old English continued at an increased speed and in less than a century we can say that the Old English period is over and that Middle English has begun. The point is when we read history not necessarily the history of a language when we read any kind of history it is important for us to realize that there are transitional periods. These transitional periods are as important as the so called main you know chief full bloom periods with you know where we have in a way the language shows the different qualities at a speak. These transitional periods are also important and need to be taken into consideration each period in history has right elements from the older period and elements from the newer period which form these important transitional phases. Now the Norman following the Norman conquest the Middle English period is you know also considered to be a period of great change of great importance and there was a continuation as we saw the tendencies have begun to manifest themselves in Old English and the most one of the most important points here really I would say was in terms of vocabulary and the attempt for a rise of a standard English see the dates what were our dates are dates for 1150 to 1500 that is just the beginning of the 16th century. Now before you know the end of Middle English we find the tendency for the rise of standard English or certain standard of English before this you remember they were dialects right we talked about Northern dialect East Middle dialect etcetera. Now they were different dialects but they there was a time came when there was we see the phenomenon of the rise of a standard English. Now let us read from I think this is Bohr by the end of the 14th century a language emerged in the written form that varied with the local dialects. This was recognized as the standard language both in speech and writing and was called London English or East Midland dialect. Geographically it occupied a middle region owing to its name this region was also the largest and the most popular and prosperous district in the country. We have to understand this was really the beginning of mercantile capitalism this was you know by this time trade right trade and mercantilism these were some of the very important cultural attributes of the time. So because of that also you need a standard English for people to have agreements for people to you know talk about trade to people for people to you know to agree on so many aspects as far as business was concerned do you understand and also as a reading public grew you will see with the coming of the printing press in England. There are many factors and find this in the lecture in early modern English how you know there are several factors like the spread of popular education etcetera which came and gave rise to a standard English. Now the importance of London English as boss is here was that by far the most influential factor in the rise of standard English was the importance of London as a capital of England. London English took as well as gave it began as a southern and ended as a middle and dialect. The London standard had been accepted in most parts of the country in writing in the latter part of the 15th century. So this is again another important phenomenon in middle English period of the English language. Then however, Bohr also cautions us you know he says for instance that we read from his text it would be a mistake to saying that complete uniformity was attained within the space of a few generations even though there was the rise of standard English. Even in matters of vocabulary dialectical differences have persisted in cultivated speech down to the present day and they were no less noticeable in the period during which London English was gaining general acceptance. So it is a rise of standard English is a or rise of a standard form in any language obviously is a discernible phenomenon. But any scholar of the history of English language would also readily agree that this so called standard the standard was there all right. But there were also many other variants that were that continued to be spoken by the people in which for instance he says even to the present day we have you know in fact today it is said that we you know say the BBC English is you know the BBC English was able to really in the modern times standardize standardize English because as the English everybody was listening to when there was a radio right. So everybody would listen to a certain variant or certain kind if I may use the word certain kind of English and then they would also be encouraged you would feel encouraged because it was the standard quote unquote standard it was the broadcasted language. So people would begin to to learn those words learn even how to speak learn what kind of things to avoid learn also you know the words get the repertoire of in of words growing. So they was brought again I said if you look at the cultural changes social historical changes you will find that the media also is a means of standardization of standardizing things and it also happened in the modern times we find that I said the BBC was instrumental willy-nilly of giving rise to a standard version of English you follow. Now we will slowly find that they are now changing conditions up to the modern period and here we find that in the early modern period which is our next historical period we find these factors the coming of the printing press and popular education with increased communication and increased social consciousness. Now these are all related I want you to look at this very carefully see here is a technological matter let us call this some material technological fact the coming in of the printing press. Now what happens when there is a printing press when there is a printing press they the you know reading material the text which were hitherto in manuscript form and very limited may be just a few copies to copying from the main manuscript this changed the entire this scenario is completely changed. So you could have say as AC Boss says you could have 100,000 books published by the printing press which was available to more than 100,000 people with the growing of lending libraries for instance or personal lending we people could actually get copies and read them. Now what happens is this also gives an impetus to popular education the availability of text why not the rise of schools of course this is the thing point that may have come to your mind the rise in the number of schools the rise in popular education people reading not for you know for any specialization purposes the people reading you know reading text written poetry for instance reading prose for instance for even for just leisure and pleasure right. So the printing press therefore made available books in you know in the English language which would then establish the language in a way it was never established before. Now see in the if the model counterpart was the BBC even after that if the counterpart is saying the internet during the transition from middle English to early modern English the early modern English which is the next period in our you know division of the way we have divided generally divided the history of English language we will find that this is a very important phenomenon. So a technological phenomenon leads to a cultural phenomenon which is the growth of popular education it is increased communication and finally it gives makes an impact or it has an impact on social consciousness in general. Ideas now come to be shared by people the social consciousness is changed right the you know the general knowledge atmosphere has changed even I would say the general ideological atmosphere changes because it also matter what kind of books are published do you follow what kind of text are chosen to be published that also leads to a change in the social consciousness of people. So remember this is an extremely important time as far as the English language is concerned and as we say as you found that there is a rise you know of a standard form of English finally zooming into the east middle and dialect that was there among the four dialects. It was important that London slowly we came to be you know the capital and the business capital business centre and there was need there was a need also by the tradesman class by the mercantile class for further for more education to understand. So these are you see some of the social technological historical political changes that also lead determine the course of a language. Now Bohr again as he Bohr mentions this here he says the majority of the texts it is true were in Latin whereas it is in the modern languages that the effect of the printing press was chiefly to be felt. In England over 20,000 titles in English had appeared by 1640 that is the middle of the 17th century the result was what this result was to bring in to bring books which had formally been the expensive luxury of the few within the reach of all. So there was a sort of you may use over a democratization of the reading of reading accessibility of the accessibility of books of reading or I would say the democratization of the reading opportunity. So the AC Bohr says the result was to bring books which had formally been the expensive luxury of the few within the reach of all it was possible to reproduce a book in a thousand copies or a hundred thousand everyone exactly like the other a powerful force thus existed for promoting a standard uniform language again. A standard uniform language is possible precisely because of the availability of books in print during that particular period in history. Then we will now move on to the next period which is modern English. Modern English really is you know divided into two parts as early modern English and late modern English. Now many scholars call it call the first early modern English and the second they do not use the word late simply call it modern English. Modern English is again not homogenous over time. The modern English that was there say 200 years ago is not the English that we have today. Since language is extremely dynamic and the English language in particular among some other languages is also a very dynamic language it has been able to give as well as take as it were. So, when we come to the modern period is one thing that I would like to highlight here among other things and which is the enormous growth of vocabulary in as far as the modern times are concerned. And this enormous growth in vocabulary may be traced to back to historically to two important social historical factors. First is the industrial revolution the coming of industrial revolution and the second is the growth of the British empire. So, we need to talk about the enormous sort of impact these two things had on the growth of vocabulary right. So, the we will end with the modern period and also a bit about you know about science etcetera. And let us first begin with what happened in you know because of these two historical events or series of events which is the industrial revolution and the rise of the British empire. So, these are the two points industrial revolution and the empire. So, this the growth of science from the 17th century from Newtonian science and the growth of technology during the industrial revolution for instance the spinning Jenny you are all acquainted with this with the from your social studies classes the spinning Jenny then the steam engine for instance. They gave rise to new materials definitely new machines right new means and improved means of transportation and communication communication and new systems of manufacture. Now, these remember these you will agree that these are relatively very new things you had materials like never before with the coming of science and technology in after with Newton. Some people also call the coming of the modern age machines new kinds of machines were there which never existed before new means and improved means of transportation and new manufacturing industries. Things were at least that were not manufactured in the old artisan industry of way of manufacturing things. So, this necessitates the growth of vocabulary you need words in order to name at least name these things and largely what happened is the new words came you know there was sort of a leaning if I may use the word leaning on to into on to antiquity on to roots etymologically coming from Latin and Greek. We know you all of you know are away we have also done learn this in your school about the renaissance time of great learning of revival in England where the classics were re you know there was a renewed interest not only among literary scholars were also among scientist. Scientists too took a great interest in you know in antiquity in Latin and Greek text not only not for the science precisely because of the great literatures that came from those times. So, as we see here the new products for instance the new products machines and processes the new there were new words for instance like train, engine reservoir, pulley, combustion, piston, hydraulic condenser, electricity, telephone, telegraph, lithograph, camera, vacuum, cylinder, apparatus, pump, siphon, locomotive factory some of these may also have originated later you know in the new world in America. But the point is here this slide shows us the new products new machines will need new names. So, these are some of the new additions to the vocabulary among thousands and thousands of words. So, next when you talk about modern English we cannot leave out the phenomenon of the growth of a type of English a variety of English in America in the new world. Now with the coming of the pilgrim fathers in the 17th century we had slowly the rise of a variant of English known as American English. So, American English was the English that was established in the new world following the conquest of the new world by the English. So, for instance they were again native never we said that languages both take and give. So, it is not that one part say one territory is conquered by some other country and that the territory in question only takes, but the conquering country also takes in words from the country they have annexed or conquered. So, we have from the native Americans we have words for instance of animals like raccoon, opossum, moose, chipmunk, skunk and also for instance tomato the word tomato is of native American origin which was taken into the English language. There was as we find in this interesting quotation from Thomas Jefferson in 1813 there was the new he says the new circumstances under which we are placed call for new words, new phrases and for the transfer of old words to new objects and then he says an American dialect will therefore be formed he obviously does not call it an American language he calls it an American dialect. Now, a most important figure in this overview of you know the English language history of English language here we cannot do without is no Webster as far as the American English is concerned. Webster as you all of you are familiar with the fact there is a Webster dictionary of English of the English language and Webster said. So, there was true Webster the attempt and a successful one of pruning words they are not new words, but these are words from the mother country. So, to speak that are pruned simply because letters are not seem to be necessary here and all of you are you know a familiar with this for instance theatre for T H E A T R E we have theatre and instead of centre from the old C E and T R E we have C E and T E R, colour, honour, traveller, jeweler check instead of C H E Q U E we have check and same for mask plough PLO W for PLO U G H. So, there was among other things no Webster tried to prune the you know the existing English words and to make them more streamlined as he thought them to be. Therefore, English in the scientific if we say the modern age is a scientific age English in the scientific age therefore, sees certain standardization and codification for instance there was there is also the variant of public school English. There was a new scientific vocabulary changes in pronunciation the influence of scientific writing new words for you know that were necessary for the scientific enterprise in a way in which it far sort of you know went far beyond in number you know than the previous systems of words in the scientific domain was concerned. So, science was a very important factor that said science and empire science and technology industrial revolution and empire these are the important social historical factors. Today we find that culture industries English is also determined the kind of English we use today and the new words for instance new usages that come to us also come from the press from advertising from communication industries transport and communication from broadcasting. We give the example of the BBC from broadcasting from television you can name it from soaps from documentaries from national geographic etcetera from sound recording and also motion pictures. These are also you know ways through which changes in the language come in. Then we will end here now and there are some of the things which we obviously could not discuss here and especially from English in India. So, let us leave it for you know the last lecture in this course we will talk about it in detail. So, the say if you ask a question like what should the English in the study of you know a study of history of say any language particularly the English language focus on the one of the ways you will say that one of the ways to focus is not on is not to study changes because history means change you look at the history of something because it is a dynamic process. Now, it is not just chronicling it is a historian is different from a chronicler a chronicler will give you dates and that is why here I have not really talk so much about dates really will chronicler will give you dates and their events, but a historian is going to look at a far more holistic picture of changes say in the case of language in relation to I said in the beginning relation to changes in technology changes in science changes in society changes in political processes do you follow for instance empire something that we found was very growth of the British empire is very important or had important implications for the English language. So, we you say that we will write that we will we the growth development and history of a language needs to be seen from a historian's point of view not a chronicler's point of view. Second say if you ask the question like what are the major phases of English the history of the English language and you say that they are four major periods of the history of the English language namely old English middle English remember old English with the coming of the Anglo angle Saxons and Jutes and middle English after the Norman conquest then early modern English and modern English these are after that you can say safety that we talk about world Englishes that is more in a horizontal not in a linear fashion so more in a distributed horizontal fashion of understanding varieties of English do you follow. Then another third question would be on how the question like how did a standard form of English emanate then you would have to talk about the London dialect you talk about the rise of the tradesmen class you have to mention the printing press for instance the spread of education rise of popular education the rise of in the number of schools for instance. So, this is one of the first times when there was a standard rise of a definite standard English and finally, we talk about modern times we talk about you know if you ask the question like name two important events or series of events in modern English history that had great impact on particularly the vocabulary of English of modern English then you need to mention the two which are what the industrial evolution and the growth of the British Empire. And I have not talked so much about literature here because we talk about literature in the next module which will be dealt with by we will find a find lectures by my colleague professor Krishna Burra this like this was largely or this was actually only on the English language. So, I have not really talked about I have not talked about Chaucer here I have not talked about Shakespeare here I have not talked about Bernard Shaw here for instance. So, I am because of paucity of time I am simply giving you a you know a collection of lectures on the history of the English language relating it to socio cultural political changes. Thank you so much we will meet in the next lecture we will begin to talk about old English in more detail. Thank you.