 We will look at X bar theory where we are looking at the structure of a phrase, we started with phrase structure rules and then we moved on to the structure with apparent and advantages that we have discussed so far, okay. In order to answer these questions we have looked at this sentence and when we see this phrase structure in this structure I have fixed your questions, okay because now we can see things more clearly. So when we, tell me again for everybody this is making sense, right, just two simple points out of this, these rules that I want you to understand. The algorithm is not so difficult or these names are not so difficult for you to understand like NPVP and all those things. The two main points here are the following, A, these rules describe the sentence before, right. In order for us to understand the relationship among all the words in that sentence and how those words form a group and with whom and then how each group of words that is a phrase is related to one another, right, that is one. Second is these rules independently can generate infinite number of sentences with little bit modification or not or even when we do not modify these rules can generate lot of sentences, lot of sentences. Of course there are limitations of these rules but these are the two points that we wanted through these rules, alright. Then this one shows us little bit clearly about these grouping of words, right. We have seen these things thus far and we talked about why a subject is also called an inflectional phrase or a tense phrase or an agreement phrase, right and we will look at it more when we reach that part. Then we started looking at the structure of the phrase in terms of their binary branching that is the structure that we see now are all binary in terms of their branching. I do not have multiple branching structure on the screen but I have shown you the multiple branching structure on the board which will remind you that multiple branching structure was able to tell us grouping but not much beyond that in the sense that multiple branching have their own limitations that they do not show any sort of hierarchical configuration. In order to capture conceptual hierarchy among phrases and units of a phrase that is within the phrase the reason why this was called X bar is because there was an intermediate node created for us to understand this whole thing. So we get three layers of representation of a particular phrase that is head then intermediate category head will be N intermediate category that is intermediate level N bar and then the phrasal status of the whole phrase that is N p or N 2 bars, right and this is the blueprint of structure of all the phrases and then lot of other things come into play which we are going to see that how they become recursive and how they get connected with one another. So clear so far the notion of this whole set of nodes tell us about the notion of a specifier and compliments as well with respect to head that is specifier by virtue of being higher than the head has a scope over both head and its compliment and compliments are only going to be in close proximity with their heads. This is also categorically clear from these structures then we saw that sometimes we may not have a compliment or we may have a compliment we may not have a specifier we may have an a specifier irrespective of their physical presence we are going to have we have these spaces for them however we do not have a phrase if we if the head is not present that is without the head we cannot conceptualize probably the phrase. So again the head is not significant just for its name the whole existence of the phrase depends on head when we start looking at larger phrases then we see how they are connected. So in this NP we see the head of this this phrase is a noun and then a PP is its compliment and then again that PP is headed by a P with an NP compliment and then we can we can again break them into its actual shape where the last NP that you see physics is not going to have its either have have its specifier and compliment therefore I have just put them as NP clear okay. If we start looking at the word phrase of the sentence that you have seen that students of physics like pizza in the evening the whole phrase part of the part of the sentence look like this on the screen clear where in the word phrase the head of the verb is like and then pizza is the compliment of the verb that is because verb is transitive in its in nature and then we see that the PP in the evening is not really the compliment it has the you can see the you can look at the configuration and see the this is not the question of chicken and the egg there are two things again two things are prominently clear and visibly clear if you see this thing the structure tells you that the verb that the noun pizza is in close proximity with the verb that is the noun that is the noun phrase which is being subcategorized required by the verb as its compliment and in the evening is a a there are two things about the phrase in the evening a it is not related to pizza if at all it has to say anything it has to say something about the entire this part entire this thing that is like pizza if this thing has to say anything that is in the evening is talking about like pizza therefore it is higher and since it is not a subcategorized or a required element this kind of thing where you see the intermediate category an intermediate category being expanded that is another another of this is adjoined this type of requirement or this type of manipulation is called I do not mean manipulation in a negative sense this kind of manipulation of the structure is called adjunction where we have just another we were adjoined which serves the purpose gives captures the the way phrases are conceptually available in the structure in the deepest structure of the phrase and also captures the distinction between a compliment and the adjunct making sense this much in very briefly in the last class we had seen in the last few minutes as well we had we have looked at things so far and I have again slowly gone over these things for us to understand how these things work yes yes exactly and just about the preposition phase shouldn't that also be split into a space fire first and the P dash absolutely and then the plan yes even if it's blank shouldn't be mentioned you're right you're right it should be but the reason why I haven't put them there that for there are two reasons a there was not much of a space on the screen that's one b I didn't I don't mean to underestimate your your imaginations once you understand the structure of a phrase but that that could be the third reason the second the first is there was no a space here and the second is it's a it's a general practice in the struck in when we look at their structure see we look at this is structure right now we are looking at this is structure because I am taking you through these things one by one for the first time but when people look at people draw a structure of a tree in their understanding and investigation the standard practice by people I mean linguists investigating a sentence the standard practice in the field is not to draw things that are not available knowing very well that those things exist so your question is absolutely right and I agree with you that probably when these things are presented for the first time they should be expanded they will be nice but that's like I have done with the VP okay and also I took a little bit of liberty with this thing because I have done the PP here right because we have a specifier head and compliment we know nothing comes in the specifier of the specifier of the PP therefore in the this PP we have just dropped it but we we have we understand it do you understand the question and the answer both okay so true now let's go and look at the whole sentence okay bear with me for a moment again for the for the purpose of the space I have reduced the subject and I am going to show you the subject separately just just just look at how how it is how the whole sentence projects itself and what is combined with what you have seen all the way to VP right now look at the whole sentence we are calling the whole sentence an IP right you can you can call it anything even if we call S doesn't matter much the the practices are even when you put S in the top in the branching people go with I bar and I the other idea is not to put S bar and S okay because S represents the sentence and not a phrase so when we call IP what we are saying is we are considering the whole sentence as a phrase and just like in a smaller phrase like NP or VP the head of the phrase is a noun or a verb when we say the entire sentence is IP the head of the sentence is an I which means inflection okay and in the place of inflection here you see what do you see in the place of inflection in this sentence which PRES which means present tense okay so I have put only tense here I have put only tense here so there could be several questions then why don't you call it T or TP right the again we can call that but the point will be the same okay we can call it TP and then T bar and T and then everything else doesn't change anything we can we can call it AGRP AGR bar then in the place of I we say AGR right and then put something there I want you to understand conceptually a very simple thing that whatever names whatever the name we give is not really really important what is important is sentence is a phrase by itself and this notion of representing or drawing a sentence captures the fact that in the head place of a sentence whatever comes is the most important part of the sentence saying the same thing in other words this the advantage of this structure is it clearly shows you what is the head of a sentence what is the most important part of a sentence do you see do you see the thing putting both ways this the advantage of this structure is it captures the important part of the sentence and it enables us to see the most significant part in a sentence right sentence itself is tenseless not all the time oh very true what what I have what I have told you when we discussed about tense when we said things like when we say like pizza remember what I what I said is there is no tense marker present that doesn't mean tense is absent tense marker is not visible in a sentence like this and tense marker is visible in a sentence like okay so this becomes a tense marker at that time what we were discussing is very simple thing the tense is a slippery category okay in in in the language like English the whole notion of gender is completely 0 all the time unlike our languages where we see gender appearing at the surface structure are you with me are you following me in our languages we see gender appearing at the surface structure on the on surface can you give me an example of this thing when I say in our language we see gender appearing on the surface appearing on the surface you mean there is a marker clearly visible exactly and and the reason why I am taking you again slowly because I want to clarify this this this point in a very clear way anybody so part of Raha whom what kind of tense is visible on the word some sort of masculine marker right which tells you that the subject of the sentence is masculine right in a language like English it's always going to be dormant it's never going to be visible I am reading he is reading she is reading it's always going to be dormant now the point is it's not that there is no tense in English it's just dormant for the purpose of grammar it does not participate in grammatical process okay therefore never surfaces in a language like Hindi because it participates in grammatical process it surfaces sometimes okay similarly in a language like English tense is a very slippery category sometimes it is it has no manifestation and sometimes it has manifestations right even here okay so and and this is the story only in present tense the reason why I am calling do you understand why I am calling it a slippery category you are you following it or not no so you need to ask what do you mean by slippery okay only then I will know that you it's not clear to you I can figure out some things by looking at your faces but not everything okay it slippery means it's hard to put your finger on it right it's it's hard to catch in the sense that see any marker of tense here no any marker of tense here yes so if this story is about but but we know that there is a present tense here this sentence is present tense right when I say I like pizza the sentence is present tense right so there is no marker of present tense but this is absolutely this there is no marker of present tense but this is present so zero marker this is clearly a present tense marker so in the in this in the story of present tense sometimes it appears sometimes it doesn't in the past tense it's always going to appear in the future tense it's always going to appear. So, when it appears sometimes and when it does not appear sometimes that is called hard to put your finger on, sometimes it is zero, sometimes it surfaces. Nonetheless, it is never conceptually absent. This is an important thing for you to understand. This distinction is very crucial. When we say no tense marker, we do not mean to say no tense. We are only saying no physical marker of tense. And this kind of a structure also helps us see that tense is available. It also helps us, there are several other things which I am going to show you little later. Once we have developed the whole structure of a sentence then we will move on to see what else this kind of a structure helps us understand. Because if it only helps us understand nice looking picture that is not enough, that is too heavy heavy a load on human mind. Are you still with me? Any other question so far? In that case there is no tense also. Here we are saying no tense marker. When we say tense less sentences, we literally mean no tense. And in that kind of a structure just tell me how will the structure work? In that structure what do you see here in place of I? Present tense. In that case you will see present tense, John first of all it should be likes in the evening. Very nice, go ahead. So this is showing a habit or something which is continuing. So does this still have tense? I mean I thought that when you say something like I live in Chennai or you say he lives in Chennai. Is it present tense or is it imperative sentence? How many of you understand this question? Do you understand? Many people you understand? Very very very nice question and very significant question. And these are the things which I sincerely request you to understand with clarity. There is absolutely no rush. We can spend time on these things and trust me once you understand these distinctions and the underlying facts of this kind of question, these things are going to make more sense to you. Understand this? So give me couple of minutes to clarify this, clarify his question. You are right. What is the first thing that you are saying that this should be John likes pizza? Very nice. When we say how about I like pizza? Then it would have been okay. What this is trying to show you is this S on the word is something else. That is by something else you mean something external. It tells us about something. So this word likes and please stop me if it stops making sense to you. As long as it is making sense listen to me and if it stops making sense please stop me. We are saying there are two things here. One is the verb and then something else. So this when we are representing the structure in third bare part, verb is only responsible for verb. It is not responsible for anything else. Therefore it is not carrying any S and I wanted this is not a typo or anything and I wanted you to see that clearly that verb is only responsible for verb. Whatever this information is has to be represented or manifested somewhere else in the structure. On the surface level when we speak the sentence this information shows up on the verb true. But in the conceptual representation this information has to go somewhere else because this information belongs to somewhere else. The verb as a category can only contain verb. So that disjoint is what is what you see here. Now what is this information? What kind of information does this give us? Tell me what kind of information does this give us? Singular. Everybody because if it is plural then you do not see this coming. Now the story of I is little bit different I do not want to mix everything. The story of I is different we say I like pizza and he likes pizza. He is singular therefore likes but how about I like? Is I plural? Now this story is something else. This is a different story of English which has something English specific for us to understand and if you remember I will tell you that story later because let us understand this thing right now. What you said is right this is a singular marker. If we put here a plural pronoun like they we get like. If we put a singular one he then we get likes. So this is a singular marker. Now singular marker is part of agreement. It is not part of it is not the marker of tense. See this thing singular marker is part of agreement not part of tense. Tense is present meaning it is present tense but physically it is absent. See this thing there is no physical marker of present tense on this sentence. So this is an agreement marker the tense marker is 0 and the you said something else something else which is very interesting why no no no. I thought that there is no tense in the whole sentence. That was not true for to begin with imperative sentences are tense less sentences. So when we say there is no tense there is only there are only two types of sentences which takes no no tense. In fact in fact the whole story is one see modal verbs do not take tense. There are two types of this one is subjunctive. In English the same thing is called operative. You may have heard sentences like may you live long. May you live long. Those are the sentences of operative types. They are tense less. When someone says may you live long what is the tense here? And to understand whether tense is present or not we need to know what is it that tense tells us. Tense only talks about time. If a sentence does not show any relation with time that is in the present past or future then we say such sentences are tense less. Yes if a sentence shows tiny then that sentence is in terms of present past and future then that is a sentence with tense. No no big mystery here. So this sentence I like pizza is this present forget about the markers right now. Is it talking about present time past time or future time? Yes it talks about time. It it does not talk about future. If I if why use why you are why it seems like no time is is is something else that I am going to show you. It does it is not future it is not past it is present. Now hold on. So this is one which will be tense less may king may you live long. The other is imperatives things like go home. These are the kinds of sentences in natural languages which are called tense less sentences. Others are going to be sentences with tense. So this has present tense the other ask the other thing is called aspect. I think we have discussed that with respect to when we were discussing about tense and other agreement and functional categories. There were several several things that we discussed does anyone remember what what are the things that we discussed here with aspect okay continuous was one. What did continuous say? Now continuous is so aspect is different from tense because we can take any tense and any aspect and make a sentence right. So I can take a present tense and continuous aspect I can say I am eating pizza right. Is this is this continuous eating and present continuous? I can take a past tense and still make a continuous sentence. What would be the sentence? No not have been is something else past and continuous I was eating pizza okay past tense and continuous. Why is it continuous and still past? Because it is talking about something which was in progress at some moment of time in the past that some moment of time is shared with between speaker and the listener okay but it is talking about continuation of something in some moment of time in the past. Therefore I am eating pizza is present and I was eating pizza is past. So one is that this distinction is about present and past which is timing tense aspect is different from tense. So aspect talks about the way things were happening which is that was continuous I and G represents continuous and what is this? What is the aspect here in the sentence? The aspect here is habitual or the same thing is called indefinite okay the same thing is called indefinite because it is there is some sort of regularity in it there is some sort of indefiniteness in it so we call it habitual also. So I just want you to understand the terms the we use different terms with the same meaning. So this the sentence the reason why this sentence gives you the feeling that it is not it is definitely not future it is definitely not past and it gives you a sense of not present is because of its indefinite nature how do we differentiate between habitual and imperative that is because when you say I like pizza you are talking about you are talking about something which is indefinite in the sense of a particular habit formation okay when you are talking about imperative sentences like go home it is not habitual it is it is one time instruction go home there is a categorical difference between the two when someone says go to Chennai next week if I tell you go to Mumbai next week and if someone says I live in Mumbai do not you see a difference between the two types of sentences one is talking about indefinite nature of a stay in the city of Mumbai when someone says I live in Mumbai it means you do not know when I started leaving you do not know when I am going to move to next city at this moment in time it is a continuous it is a it is a there is some sort of regularity in my stay in Mumbai it is not when I say I am I am living in Mumbai I do not mean I am a visitor in Mumbai see the point that is called indefinite status coming from the word which comes through aspect okay which is indefinite so for this sentence I like pizza or he likes pizza the things are this is present tense indefinite aspect okay singular agreement marker all these kinds of information is associated with verb okay all such things are associated with verb but they have to be manifested somewhere else in this structure they have to be manifested somewhere else get my point now can we can we move beyond the verb phrase so let me let me let me get a consensus here first are we clear about sentences with tense no not just this example take the examples of other sentences that I have given you I am I am eating a pizza and I was eating pizza with with the help of all such sentences do you understand the distinction between a sentence with tense and sentence without tense that is number one where where I want your clarity number two when we have sentences with tense tense alone is not enough what other information we get from the verb besides its timing is also things like continuous habitual or perfected somebody said I have been eating I have been eating pizza this present tense or past tense present tense and what what aspect it is it is way too complicated it is present we are right tense is present perfect is also something that we see because it gives us a sense that something is about in the in the recent past and then it gives continuity also I have been eating okay it is present perfect continuous I do not want to complicate it to that far but again like I have I have told you I have promised you in the beginning I will only point out things later when we are looking at more complicated stuff it is not that I have been eating pizza is the sentence that you have heard for the first time you may have written this sentence several times you may have spoken these kinds of sentences several times and you know this sentence what if I ask you to describe this sentence in terms of its tense and aspect and when you come up with the term present perfect and continuous you will be lost with how can something be continuous and perfect both at the same time so we are only talking about four five some languages like Sanskrit have twelve different aspects in some languages certain aspects are not present in some languages lot many aspects are captured again number of aspects in a sentence visible and not so visible is language dependent thing is it is language specific thing which is part of parameter the fact that we know these distinctions categorically clear here there is a reason why someone will say I am eating right I have eaten and I have been eating there is a difference between all these sentences and those differences are not just subtle those differences are categorical you just listen to this is a very simple sentence I am eating I have eaten and I have been eating aren't the distinction categorical this is not subtle difference I am eating is present continuous I have eaten is present perfect I have been eating use you gave this sentence I did not want to give you these things therefore I am only trying to stay with the simpler sentences because the important part is for us to understand the concepts not the sentences like I have been telling you we are not dealing with English we are dealing with these aspects so coming back to that you see the difference between these three sentences I am eating I am repeating this again I am eating I have eaten and I have been eating I have eaten is an example of present perfect which is very different from I had eaten if you say I had eaten and I have what is the difference between I had eaten and I have eaten completed just now which means present perfect and past perfect both gives us a sense of perfection by perfection we mean completion of an action but the two gives us the reading is recent past that is just now and remote past again human mind makes no mistake in figuring out or applying the notion of relativity in terms of time recent past and remote past are are relative terms as you can understand in a history in a human history 50 years may be recent time right but when we are talking about eating pizza two hours ago may be recent time four hours ago may be remote past four hours ago may be remote past with reference to two hours as recent past right the point is human mind makes no mistake with these things it does its calculation perfectly nicely without us knowing about these things which again goes back to the point of knowledge of language that I have discussed with you get the get the point second so ends alone is not enough for these things that is aspect then then there is a notion of agreement okay that is singular thing has to be agree with singular and plural thing have to be agree with plural these are the these are the the the categories in language if you have to give a metaphor you know when we make a nice chicken or vegetables when you have served that thing in a plate what you see is a nice chicken dish what you do not see is the in the specific ingredients it might contain okay functional elements are like them that we do not see them with bare eyes okay for us to see that we need to know what such things are right similarly so so these elements are functional elements in a line in in language these are functional elements involved in making a sentence alright I wanted to make one more point and then go to the structure which is and and functional functional aspects of language have to be different from lexical aspects lexical markers that that is lexical elements like like pizza I are only visible things and they are going to carry functional elements sometimes and here is the here is the point that I want you to understand very carefully sometimes functional things like agreement marker tense marker aspect markers are going to be visible when they appear in their real faces real forms they are going to be visible sometimes they are not visible that does not mean they are not there even in the tenseless sentence when we say there is no tense we we only mean that tense is 0 okay no tense is not really tense but it leaves the possibility that there are sentences that are going to have tenses okay now having said that is can I ask you final time that tense aspect makes sense to you know tense and aspect let us come here now what you see beyond VP that we have added in this slide which is IP IP and like I have been telling you sentence is called in flexional phrase it is called in flexional phrase not because it is a nice term all the functional elements that you have seen tense aspect agreement they are all inflections okay tense aspect agreement that you have seen here they are all part of inflection they are going to be they inflect the verb absolutely right they are in simpler terms we say these are they show upon the verb but technically you can definitely say they inflect the verb we only we see them only when verbs are inflected when verbs are not inflected we call that infinitive to go to like when verbs are inflected then they do not remain infinitive you understand this now they do not call they are not infinitive words so words get inflected and then we see the all of them are part of inflectional category they are all inflectional category therefore they are going to stay with inflection and there has always been a discussion that why which one is more important tense aspect or agreement okay with reasons people have argued for tense with reasons people have argued for agreement and with reasons people have argued for inflection inflection being more important because inflection contains both tense and tense aspect agreement everything together okay therefore we call it inflectional phrase and in this inflectional phrase I have put this this is where we got we were stuck and we want to come back to this thing again I have put only present so it is it seems like inflection only means tense right but one can always put in place of inflection inflection I the whole bunch of features tense aspect and agreement all of them are part of inflection and this was the reason let me close this thing by saying that this was the reason why people said no no no we need to separate the things out otherwise it is going to be it is not making much sense so tense is more important aspect or agreement is more important okay now the more important discussion is not what is important and what is not important the important point was they should manifest clearly they should be represented clearly I will show you one more structure which is going to be very nice and I invite you to see this thing in the book it starts with inflection okay and if you if you can understand and if you are still with me with a structure listen to me it starts with inflection right and then it goes to I and then it goes to TP then it again goes to aspect phrase and then it goes to agreement phrase manifesting everything and then comes VP see the point so there are two ways of doing it either you either you project everything else or you just project I and then VP in both the cases I know we need to stop in both the cases where do you see VP coming in VP is what in the sentence compliment of I okay VP is the compliment of I and this should show you what we have been discussing in terms of subject and predicate okay and we will we will continue our discussion more where do you see subject subject you do not see it so far and I have tried to put it there subject is actually the specifier of the sentence remember when we discuss subject and predicate we said subject is outside the predicate it becomes and it is it is higher up it becomes the specifier of the sentence okay we will continue from this slide tomorrow and we will discuss more where I will show you this thing that how a bigger subject is represented okay.