 Okay, so first thing is, let's take a look at the philosophy of the very large and the very small. Our topic today is on the very small and a couple, whatever weeks ago, we had a panel on gravity, which ended up talking about the very large. So today we're going to talk about that. Now, this is a slide, good, okay. This is a slide from the panel on gravity, with a few additions here. Essentially about, yeah, I've needed a second life thing. Okay, so essentially about a century ago, or around the turn of the last century, 1900, if you're using that calendar. We were still, we meaning everybody pretty much, we're still using kind of classic physics, in other words, Newtonian, flat space. We do about two forces, gravity, like the magnetism, and it was really theoretical. It was basically a construct that was, some people thought existed and some people couldn't. Partly, when we start talking about the unfamiliar, last time when we talked about gravity or we started talking about Einstein and relativistic mechanics. And now we're down at the bottom and we're both in the world of the extremely small and also in some cases, the extremely fast quantum field theory. So this is really a world quite removed from our own where things don't always behave the way they do. Now, what I mean by that is when we, when we, whoever, French, I guess, made up meters, we were about a couple meters too, as far as ourselves and things we use. And then our limits of our senses, essentially, were on the lower scale down toward, like, the smallest human hair, as far as being able to see it or touch it or whatever, up to the tallest of mountains, 10,000 meters or so. But there is a lot of the universe, both in the small and the large, that are at scales that are far exceed that, both in small world and in large. Coronavirus, for example, is about, and Max might back me up that, or if tagline's there, about 10 to the minus four, I think. Yeah, thank you. Okay, as far as 10 to the minus four meters, which means, or seven or somewhere down there, but in case we can't see them. And things that we're gonna talk about today, like protons are way smaller than anything that we can even imagine. Same thing with the solar system, it's hard to imagine how big that is. And then we go further out in this space, light years 10 to the 16th meters. So we're gonna be talking about worlds that are far removed and ours only on the small side. Now, in order for something to exist, that's kind of on the small side, we're going into philosophy here, is you kind of have to imagine it before it exists. Now, it does exist. You can't just jump off a cliff and say, I don't believe in gravity because you're gonna be surprised. The fall doesn't kill you, right? It's the sudden stop at the end. But back in the really old days, long time ago, by human standards, democratists, one of the philosophers back there. In fact, the only thing they could do was basically philosophy and a little bit of instrumentation having to do with math. But he said that there must be a limit to how far you can cut a stone. I mean, you can take a hammer, hit a stone, okay, it gets into little pieces, but essentially it's still a stone and you can continue, yeah, there you go, put some geology in there. You can continue to hit it and no matter how much you hit it, even if it's a powder, it's still tiny little stones. If you've ever looked at sand under a microscope, it's kind of cool. Yeah, oh, really? Okay, good, I gotta know more about him. Any case, so he called this an atomless, meaning uncadival. Now, on the other hand, not many people have heard of democratists because there were other names which basically had before and they said, yeah, okay, Zeno, yeah. So Zeno, there was a paradox and he basically said, look, a runner can't really reach the end or of a race because after they go halfway, they can continue to go halfway and then halfway again and halfway again and so they shouldn't be able to reach the end. Well, that's kind of interesting because essentially that happens with speed of light is you can continue getting closer to the speed of light, closer and closer, but physically it really won't allow you to do that. Yeah, Zeno's paradox, oh, yeah, well, I did too. But the gist of it is people, basically their tools were their minds. They couldn't yet look at things that were very big or very small. So then we have, speaking of hating paradoxes, we have what's called dogma. Dogma is essentially some authority going, this is what we believe, therefore this is what you believe or else. And so there's a lot of, including science, has had kind of created dogma and natural philosophy kind of came out of philosophy as the study of the physical world, kind of independent of humans. In other words, what would there be if there that isn't created by humans that's independent of it? And then kind of like a counter, our minds are wonderful things but we can imagine a lot that has no basis in reality. I can probably do a whole lecture on that today as far as what people believe about things. But to counter this, we came up with science. And then science is very closely linked to the scientific method, which essentially says, okay, careful collection, treatment, interpretation of empirical data by having conclusions. And we kind of went from, okay, let's step back out of this thing, positivism. In other words, let's try not to interfere with the things. And then we finally realized there's no way that we can step back out of a problem or an experiment. And so we can at least be transparent as to our biases and how the data may have been skewed, et cetera. Transparency, okay. But now what does this have to do with particle physics? Well, there has been some scientific dogma over the time. In other words, okay, Earth is the center of the universe. That was around for a long time. Humans, humans are a special creation above the animals. Of course, now we know we're just an animal. And we can, we're just an animal, okay. And then ether is basically a substance that permeates all of space. All of those kind of went away as we learned more about the physical world. But when we got to the atom about thinking about the atom, only about a century ago, it was still a theoretical construct to explain phenomenon. Some people had used it like Newton basically said that, yeah, well, that's a good question, Shiloh. And yeah, he didn't have calculus. Okay, so that's a good question, Shiloh, about ether. But my understanding is ether, yeah, ether does not exist, it's just a construct because we couldn't imagine a world that didn't have, in other words, like a vacuum. And nobody could make a perfect vacuum. So essentially it was a construct, much like the atom was before about a century ago. And so Newton kind of explained it says, okay, when you open up gas, gas atoms are rushing out into space. And then Dalton, anybody that knows chemistry knows the name of Dalton. He basically looked at, although he got the ratios wrong, he basically said, and we've heard stuff like H2O, CO2, in other words, two hydrogens per atom, one oxygen and two oxygens and one carbon is having fixed ratios. And he kind of looked at matter as having atoms. But the reason I'm mentioning this is because when we talk about science, you've got empiricists like Ernst Mach in a 10th century ago. And he basically says, okay, if we can't observe it, let's not make up things like atoms. In other words, let's just do, let's just look at the stuff that we can observe. So essentially you had those kinds of things working against people at the beginning of the last century. But, hey, we found out that the atom is indeed cuttable. Here again, the word atom means uncuttable. So now, spoiler alert, this is where we're going. This is what's called, this is the modern day right now, 2021, our look at particles. And there's a lot of them. And so we'll kind of wander through here and see how we got there. But it's kind of a spoiler. This is what we know today. Yeah. Okay, so how do you observe an atom? In other words, if you can't, yeah, exactly. Okay, so if you can't observe an atom, what do you do? How do you, well, first of all, you see how things behave. In other words, it's kind of like dinosaur footprints. Is that doesn't, just because we can't see a dinosaur walking around except for Jurassic Park, or, you know, in a movie. We want to see how they behave and their traces and basically their footprints. So electromagnetism, we understood fairly well. And the electromagnetic theory had been created by Maxwell in the 1880s. And so we could see, well, how do these little parts, how does stuff behave under electric magnetic field? And then radioactivity was discovered right around the same time period. And then somebody got really clever and invented the cloud chamber, which is essentially a, let's say it's really, really foggy inside. And if you have a foggy windshield and a little speck of dust or anything can start a streak. And essentially, that's what you have in a cloud chamber. A very, very interesting way to look at stuff that you really can't see. It just, it creates a footprint in a very foggy chamber. And then somebody went up in a balloon and discovered, whoa, there's these high-energy particles, which they call cosmic rays. By the way, the telescopes out in space, I'm trying to remember which one, but in the 20, around 2013 or so discovered that a lot of cosmic rays come, or in the 20 hundreds anyway, just discovered come from supernovae and other high-energy events. And also the black holes and other places. Okay, happy burnal equinox, everyone. Oh, it is, cool. Well, it's still, yeah, or a tunnel equinox if you happen to be down under. Okay, so, and another way to do it is instead of smashing a stone with a hammer, you essentially smash atoms with other little particles. You worm around really close to speed light and whammo and see what flies out. Okay, and so those are the methods we use to take a look at things, atoms. So let's kind of take a look at how some of this was explored from a century ago to today. Well, as I said, the first thing we do is we use some electricity or magnetism. And over there in the far right, if you want to zoom in on stuff, upper right you've got JJ Thompson and he's got a evacuated glass tube and he's shooting electrons toward the end of it. Oh, thank you. Not a little busy, but I'm trying to explain, but I'm trying to at least explain what's going on in them. Yeah, lots of info and part of it so that you can look at this again if it's online. Oh, absolutely, yes. That's what happened later when we do atomic particles, cause it accelerated and then wham into each other later on. Okay, so JJ Thompson had this evacuated glass tube and he shot electrons into it. And then lo and behold, he found that using a magnet, the stream which he couldn't see curved and he could see it at the end of the tube. It was kind of scintillating on the glass. By the way, don't try this at home. This is also how you create X-rays. They didn't know that kind of stuff back then, so don't do it. But if you look at where it says television, maybe the far in the right, on the far right, this is how televisions were created essentially the same way with a phosphor type of screen and being able to control electron beam up until we had flat screens. So that's kind of where that went. Now, the other thing is Rutherford, who was a student of Thompson, discovered radioactivity. Well, at least what he discovered was there were particles. In other words, radioactive particles, an alpha particle, which we now know is actually two protons and two neutrons, in other words, a helium atom stripped of its electrons. And a beta particle, which we now know is a proton. What about that, Nisaka? Or no, no, no, no, sorry, beta particles are electrons, alpha particles contain protons, got it. Okay, and then gamma rays, which are really, really high energy radiation above X-rays. And those are essentially, the reason why you call it alpha beta gamma, by the way, is it's in order of least penetration. In other words, alpha rays can essentially be stopped by a piece of paper, your skin, whatever. And gamma rays really can't, they're very high energy. Well, so you have electrons, which are negative. You've got these alpha particles, which are positive. And so you've got Nils Bohr, then. What Rutherford and then Nils Bohr did was, they, Rutherford in particular, was he shot alpha particles at gold atoms. And lo and behold, what happened, they, most of them went through. So it's like, okay, how come they're going through? So it must be mostly empty space, but every once in a while, they bounce back or they bounce at different angles, but just every once in a while. So essentially, over a few years there with Nils Bohr, they decided, well, most of the mass of an atom must be in the center, but a very, very dense, small, positive nucleus. And the electrons must be whirling around them or whatever. And if you remember back in school, what an atom looked like, essentially it looked like what you see there to the right. That's the atomic energy commission in the United States, their logo, and it still has basically Bohr atom. Well, it doesn't really look like that, but that's essentially the idea back a century ago, how they first envisioned it. So now we've got the electron and the proton. The problem is, if you've got a magnet and you've got a positive and a negative charge, what happens? I see some wonderful things going on in a chat, but what happens if you've got a negative and a positive and they're really close together? What should happen? In other words, you've got an electron and a proton. What should happen? No more atoms, right? Why a model? Okay, so, wow, okay, but Mike, yep, that's what essentially they came up with. And the idea here was Enrigo Fermi, Paul Dirac, they attack, or tracked, wow, attack each other, track. Okay, so any case, they came up when they go, okay, well, and they can hold onto that thought, Shaila, because essentially the positive ones, if you have positive ones, they would shy away from each other, in other words, pull apart. Okay, so what they decided in around 1926 is, well, at the really, really small level, these particles must, yeah, magnetic attraction, absolutely. And that's what they knew back then. They knew about electricity, knew about magnetism, and they went, okay, if an atom has a positive little center and it's got electrons, the atom should collapse. And so what's keeping it from collapsing? And so essentially Enrigo Fermi, Paul Dirac, they said, okay, let's investigate this a little bit. And what's actually happening is it's not like in our world where you could just go about and people don't slam into each other in trees and stuff, although they do in second life when they're first walking around, but that's another story. But essentially, each of these little particles, if they have a Fermi Dirac statistics, they can only have the same quantum state, essentially, occupated the same niche, only one of them can at a time. They have to have something different, like for example, a different span, a different charge, whatever. And so they came up with the idea of the electron orbitals, so the atomic orbitals, which we talked a little bit about when I did a presentation on biochemistry in December, I think it was. Okay, and then later on, they found that something called bosons, which essentially carry force. They're the things like the photon and some weird little things like gluons and stuff. But essentially, fermions, in other words, the ones that behave like this, in other words, can only occupy a certain state, make up a common matter. Okay, more on that, but maybe a little confusing, but let's continue. So what do we have right now? We've got protons and electrons. So this is actually a slide from the biochemistry presentation where I started out going, okay, in order to talk about chemistry, we have to talk about the electron orbitals and we have to talk about, yeah, not with bosons. Yeah, they make up most of the universe. Okay, so that's like dark matter. Okay, so in any case, in chemistry, you can't talk about chemistry unless you're talking about electrons and unless you're talking about the electron orbitals and such. Okay, so inside the atom, you've got the protons and we'll find out that you also have neutrons. I will just discover a little bit later. And then you've got the electron orbitals and essentially, if you talk about those, you've got a handle on the beginning of chemistry. So where are we now? Well, we've seen this before, I said, spoiler alert. And so now we're talking about electrons. Electrons are, yeah. Okay, so electrons really are an elementary particle. You can wham them as hard as you can with a hammer, but they don't splinter into anything else. Protons, though, that's another story. And so we'll continue with the story here. Okay, so we, and look at all the other ones we need to talk about. Okay, so new particles and new forces. By the way, this is all, this is not philosophy. This is not like, gee, I think there's a neutron going on around. All this is based in math. So what you have above there, for example, is Dirac's equation. It's a relativistic wave equation that kind of combines quantum and relativity, which is cool. And it predicts antimatter. If you look at the, let's see, I don't have my little pointer with me, but I'm pointing with my cursor and you can't see it. Okay, but there is a factor. There's a complex number of the little i at the end, right after the equals sign. And essentially, instead of just ignoring the negative value, Dirac said, wow, this means that there are particles that are every way the same, but they have negative charge or negative something than the other particles, essentially antimatter. So it predicts antimatter, that's cool. And then Feynman's equation down there, we'll talk about his equation and particle interactions. But this is the last time you see the math part. For you guys that are really good at math, it's quite interesting, but let's talk about the particles itself. So antimatter, it was predicted back in 1927, the first thing that was predicted. And by the way, what you see there is a cloud chamber view of the very first positron. You can see a little curved, that almost toward the center, you can see little curved lines that go up and go down. And essentially what you're looking at is what happens when an electron whams into or discovers a positron, in other words, matter and antimatter, come together and create essentially energy. That's the basis of the engines in Star Trek, although that's Hollywood. But antimatter was first predicted in 27 and then detected actually in 1932. So, and then a neutron. Oh, I don't have the person who founded neutrons, Chadwick. And I'm trying to remember his first name, but essentially what he did was he bombarded beryllium with alpha particles and created a neutral ray. In other words, it wasn't meant by magnetic forces. And so he had discovered neutrons. And so people go, wow, this is cool because if you've whammed these little nucleuses and you've got both positive things and neutral things, then that means atomic nuclei must contain protons and neutrons. And then in the 30s, now what leads, okay, this is the beginning of the 30s. So what else did they discover about hitting atomic nuclei really hard? What can also happen? If you take neutrons and whack them into nuclei, what happens? It starts a, yeah, I'll do, yeah. Okay, Scissorji, keep that in mind as there are neutrinos involved here. Yeah, well, unfortunately, tagline, yeah, lots of stuff they didn't know about at the time. It's just like, let's see, who put out on the Facebook page for a second, for a science circle, there was a good one. I think maybe was it Mike or who put out the one catalytic combustion, a chain reaction, yay, day. So that's what would happen. And so in other words, if you whack into nuclei with a neutron, you're gonna get a couple coming off and then it'll become a chain reaction. And that's not good if you've got them really close to each other because that can become a nuclear explosion. Okay, unless that's your intent. So in any case on the science circle on Facebook, you'll see a picture of Madame Curie's notebook where she's taking things and it's still so radioactive that you shouldn't be near it. And unfortunately, people back then didn't understand that much about radioactivity and x-rays and all that they can do to human bodies. Okay, the other thing that was discovered in the 30s were things called mesons. They were actually predicted and then detected later and then muons. And these were in cosmic rays. Now, let's take a moment to reflect on the value of science. This is in the 30s and then you're talking, yeah, it has to kept the lead copper. Okay, so because what comes out of it, which I think are probably beta and some gamma rays and stuff can't get through a certain amount of lead or at least are attenuated. Yeah, very good. Okay, now, Dr. Yukawa was the first Nobel Prize winner in Japan. And we need to take a pause here because this was the 30s and the 40s. And bear in mind that science and medicine and stuff is one of the one places where you can have people from all different countries and yes, okay, there's politics and science, but basically you'll see that there's discoveries here made by people all over the world regardless of what kind of political events are happening at the time. And that's one of the things I love about science. It's much like here in Second Life with the science circle that we have people from all over the world and that's one of the things I love the most about it. By the way, and it might be another presentation, but does anyone happen to know and I'm trying to remember the name, but the person in Germany who also discovered nuclear fusion, et cetera, like that was a woman, by the way, and I need to remember her name. Okay, so now the second crisis comes along and I spelt nuclear strong. The nucleus should fall apart, not fall together, but should blow apart because essentially there's, it's a very dense small little spot that has a lots of positive charges and technically it should fall apart. So how come it doesn't? And so how did they solve the second crisis? Well, essentially they had to come up with different forces than they knew. In other words, remember up until now we're talking about gravity and electromagnetism and now they're talking about forces which only occur at the distance of, in other words, they fall off very quickly. They only occur within the range of a nucleus. Yeah, nuclear versus nuclear, okay. Nuclear versus nuclear. So one of the things was they found out that, well, there is a strong force that holds protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Nucleus here again being really, really, really, really, really small on the order of 10 to the minus 15 meters. Well, how strong is the strong force? It's 137 times as strong as electromagnetism. It's a million times strong as what we call the weak force which explains radioactivity. And it's an insanely 10 to the 36 times gravity. So gravity really only works when you have lots and lots and lots of articles. The weak force basically says, well, how come things actually do get ejected from the nucleus unless you actually whack it really hard? In other words, like radioactivities. And so you had several other particles that, yeah, very incredibly strong. And you're right, QCD, where you've got quantum chromodynamics. Yeah, the problem is I have to talk about particle physics, philosophy, and the Big Bang all in an hour. So I'm trying to kind of explain this together, introducing a strong force. Yeah, that's however common, weight sumo, because physicists actually do have a sense of humor, particularly when we get to quarks. So hang on a second. But we call it strong, et cetera. Okay, so here's three more particles. Now, you'll see down there how a neuron, which is one of the little particles discovered, decays, yeah, well, Q, U, A, R, K. Q, U, A, R, K, Q, R, we'll talk about that in a minute. But essentially, these are what these diagrams here are what are called Feynman diagrams. And they kind of explain, instead of in math, where everybody might get blurry eyed unless you're really good at math. Charm is one of the properties of the quark, the charmed quark, is they explain how the particles actually interact. So down on the bottom, you've got a muon decaying into a new neutrino, and also it's called a W minus boson, and then into anti-neutrino and electron. And this is, yeah, up, down, top, bottom, charm, strange. We'll get to that in a minute. Hang on a second. Okay, so any case, where are we now? Well, it's the 30s and we have discovered two more forces. Strong and weak forces basically occur just in the atomic nucleus. Electromagnetic force is our part of the world. In other words, it explains pretty much everything that goes on and out part of the world. And then you've got to have some really big objects for gravity to really come into effect. Technically, me and my laptop are both attracted to each other gravitationally, but we've got far too few atoms for it to make any difference. So electromagnetism takes over in most of part of our world. This is a slide from the biochemistry presentation I did in December. Just, now it's in context. And there we go, okay. So where are we now? Well, I didn't talk about photons, but I did when we were talking about gravity and Einstein, because essentially a photon is a force carrier and it's a force carrier. Force carrier with electromagnetism. In other words, we know that. If you have light shining on a solar panel, it can create electrons. Light is what, light is what seals photosynthesis. And basically, in other words, creates little electrons running around doing the chemical thing in plants. So photons are force carriers. The same thing also with the W, a light filled particle. Well, in a way it has potential to create light. In other words, if you've got light coming in, it can then bounce an electron basically up to a higher level or electron can lose energy and create a photon. Yeah, in fact, actually, okay, that's very good. Actually, photons are totally massless. In other words, they don't have any mass. But the W and Z bosons carry the weak force. And we've talked about those. You've got electrons and then nuons. Now, here's a chance, kind of an interesting thing is you've got, if you look at where it says electron and muon, we'll talk about a little bit more, but essentially you've got electrons and then muons behave like electrons except that they're heavier. And everything else is pretty much the same, but they're heavier. And then tau particles are like electrons and muons. We don't know about those yet. We haven't talked about those yet. But essentially it's even much heavier than that. And then each of them have a anti-particle, in other words, anti-matter. Photons also don't attend mass. Oh my, should I read the chat? Okay, and that's anti-matter. So you've got a positron, which is an anti-electron and an anti-muon. And then we talked a little bit about neutrinos. In other words, each of those particles, electrons and muons and tau particles have their own flavor, which is an actual really word in particle physics, their own flavor of neutrino, which can then exchange with each other. So let's keep going and I'm watching my time a little bit. Let's keep going and talk about some of the other particles. So what they found then, particularly in the 50s and end of 40s was they started looking and started whacking things into each other and they found, oh my goodness, there are particles and particles and particles. In fact, we know of over 200 different particles, but are the elementary particles? And the answer is no. And so that was kind of the next crisis. We'll talk about that in a minute. But let's go ahead and take a look at the category of particles. We've got what are called bosons, we've drawn some fermions. Fermions obey certain statistics that keep them from having the same quantum state as each other if they happen to be near each other or the same energy level thing. So you've got leptons. I know these are weird names, but you've got leptons, which are essentially the electron, muon and neutrino, okay, we've looked at those. We've got what are called baleons, which are like the proton and neutron. And don't look at the clock thing yet, but essentially they have odd number of clocks, like either three or five, like a pentaclock or which are still being discovered or a mason which have even numbers like two or four. If you're really getting confused, welcome to the club, it's the same thing as in relativity, it's confusing. I'm trying to make it a tiny bit less confusing or bosons, which are like the photon, the W or Z, boson and then something called, yeah, I know. And then, but what haven't we talked? Oh, bosons are very happy to be in the same quantum state. Yeah, that's correct. In other words, bosons are very happy, fermions are not. And thank you for clarifying that. In other words, bosons can just wander around whatever they want, whereas fermions have particular rules about where they can be and what they can do and stuff like that, okay? So on the bosons there, what haven't we talked about? Yeah, exactly. Okay, so what is left to talk about? Well, quarks and glurons and pigs, boson. We talked about pretty much the other thing. So let's go ahead and talk about quarks and glurons. I know, see, businesses do have a sense of humor. So, here's what they, this is in the, particularly in the early 60s. You had Mary, you had Mary Gillman and Yvonne Neiman will come later, Phil Vaughn? Oh, goody. Yay, yes, Mary Gillman. Okay, so in any case, these guys kind of work together and they go, wow, you know, if we look at all these weird particles that are being discovered, like Sigmund, Lambden, Kai, Baryons and Delta and Kions and Pyons, Atom, Masons and all that, and if we look at all of them, we can put them into patterns. And there's groups and you've got the Masons over there that essentially, if you look at their strangeness, whether it's one, zero or negative one, if you look at their charge as negative one, zero or one, they can form little octets and groups and such. In fact, actually, does anyone know what this is called? Anyone, the Particle Physicist or? Yeah, as long as, also Stephen Winder who plays a part in here. Okay, so anyone know what this is called? It's called the, it's kind of an allusion to Buddhism. This is what they actually called this thing. But this is a historical note. They basically said, okay, look, these things kind of come in little sections of eight. And so they called it the Eightfold Way, which is really a play on Buddhist, yeah, okay. Well, Weinberg was, it's me. Okay, so any case, whatever, this is a historical note. But the idea is what they were finding was, there was so many different particles that were going, well, how can these possibly be related? Yeah, there you go. Okay, so possibly be related. And they said, well, they are, if you look at some of these things, they're related. And so this was the kind of the beginning of figuring out the standard model, in other words, something that would explain everything, not just little parts of it. Now it gets strange. This is, for you guys who have been chatting and talking about strangeness, now it gets strange because there's a strange quark. And so quarks and gluons, where did they come up with an inquark? Well, they were predicted back in the time when I was in college, excuse me, in high school. And I was not a normal high school student. I didn't dig in high school. And I sat around with my friends talking about quarks and gluons and the moon and super noles. And it was a wonderful time to be interested person back then because this was all happening back in the 60s and 70s. Yeah, now it gets strange. Okay, so quarks were predicted. Here again, you got Mary Jungman and George Swig, I believe, I'm not quite sure, but I said, okay. And then quark actually came from a book that, yeah, the name quark came from. However, comma, if you look, you've got the quote up there, three quarks for Mr. Mark, which they actually think meant really three quarks for Mr. Mark or whatever. It sounded good. And the reason being is because they found out that the quarks when they were predicting them came in threes and you had three quarks that made up a proton, three quarks that made up a neutron. Yeah, I know. Sorry, so I had so many chicks. Only if you have us, but okay, I'm gonna, however, comma, what if you have a smart woman? Maybe that person would like to talk about particle physics with me. That's probably the people I would have gone over after at that time, okay. So in any case, they were detected then, the top quark wasn't detected until 1995, but these are weird little particles. And by the way, I may go over a little bit because I started later. And so hopefully you'll bear with me, but I'll try to keep it to an hour is essentially quarks create the most stable particles. Most of the particles we look at are maybe a millionth of a billionth of a second or something that they stay in existence. In fact, if they're around for a millionth of a second, that's a fairly long time as far as these particles. However, some of the particles, these quarks create the most stable particles, like all of common matter that we know of, like protons and neutrons and stuff. They also make up the nucleus and interact not necessarily responsible for the, well, gluons and quarks, they are what gluons are exchanged between quarks to create the strong force. They're the only particle that can experience all of the forces. In other words, gravity, electromagnetism, weak and strong force. And you can't find a single one of them except for in a theoretical thing called a quark gluon plasma, which was at the beginning of the universe. Blah-blah-blah, okay. Higgs boson. Okay, they cannot exist as freestanding particles as what's called color. It has what somebody put earlier quantum chromodynamics and basically it's a conservation of color. And so they can't, color is like another property. It really isn't color. It's just what we call it. And so color has to be conserved and so they can't actually, yeah, quantum chromodynamics, QCD. And so they can't show up as a single one. They have to be combinations of two, three and then later on four or five are some more exotic things we've seen in this century. Oh, I'm sorry. Okay, ducks out. Yeah, exactly. Well, hey, let me see if one of the slides here, I had that and we'll probably see it again otherwise I'll go back. Okay, Higgs bosons are even weirder and basically they're the ones that is what's called the Higgs mechanism which explains why particles have mass. And what you see there is the relative masses of the different particles. Little gray one on the bottom left is actually, let's see, what is it? It's an electron and something else. The other ones are the quarks up there. You've got bottom top quark being almost as heavy as a gold atom. They didn't discover that one until 1995. And then some of the other ones up there, they're charmed and strange and then up and down quarks on the top of our. Okay, let's keep going. By the way, when you get just things like the Higgs boson and the top quark and things, it's no longer one person sitting in a room with a glass tube trying to discover the stuff. In the case of the Higgs boson, it took 3,000 businesses, 183 institutions, 38 countries, and a lot of time and a lot of energy, literally, to discover this thing. In fact, the detector was 25 meters in diameter and about 45 meters long. And just you're talking about huge big thing where you wax stuff into each other. You're correct. Syzygy there. In other words, actually, that was where the names that they used early on, truth and beauty instead of top and bottom. But they did top and bottom because they already had up and down and they figured top and bottom would go with those. But I like truth and beauty better, frankly. Okay, so we've essentially covered the particles. Here again, I'm looking at one hour just as I started to keep this plate. So I'll be done by then. Let's see, what's the background saying? Duh, says particles neutralize energy. Yeah, okay, that's, somebody else might wanna answer that, but yeah, they're all a virtual particle. In other words, things that you can get straight out of energy in empty space. So what's next? You've got this thing that they basically finalized in the 70s, that's quite a while ago. And so what do we do next? Well, first of all, the standard, we have cats. Yeah, and cats will tell you what dog means. Okay, so the standard model, what's missing? Well, the strength is it predicts three or four of the fundamental forces and accounts for everything we know. That's amazing. However karma, it doesn't describe gravity, doesn't describe general relativity, doesn't describe dark matter or accelerating universe. Doesn't say that we should have neutrino masses which we do, very, very small. So we still have to discover that, which is cool because if we discovered everything, it'd be boring. So we still have lots of cool things to discover, just the standard model explains an enormous amount and that's why it's been around for 50 weeks. Now, for you guys that like this stuff, the big bang, one of the things about learning about these little particles is we know a lot more about what happened at the beginning of the universe. So what I mean by that is like within the first million so the second or so. And what actually happened, if you look at the far right, there was unified fields, okay? The all forces were united. And then at a very, very small amount of time, the gravity kind of froze out. In other words, yeah. Okay, so you have gravity that froze out of there. So gravity now is different than the other forces. And then the strong force separates and electrophoresis now. If you look at the very top, soon, the reason why they have to have so much energy there is they're trying to explore the world of the very high energy. The last time some of these particles like quarks were actually seen, so to speak, and not frozen in protons and neutrons was back at the beginning of the universe. And so the maximum energy of CERN is about 10 to the seven giga electron volts, which basically means that you can explore this early part of the universe because this is how much energy that would have been around with particles smashing into each other at the very beginning. And so you take a look at this, you've got the big bang going on. There's an area called one inflationary epic. We won't talk about that yet because we could talk about this whole thing in one, in fact, I might someday. Yeah, quark soup in the far back. And essentially what you've got is at one time all the work where little electrons positive and then protons and neutrons all wandering around in gluons and stuff all wandering around. It wasn't any atoms. There wasn't any ions. There wasn't any stars yet. Just all these things at incredibly high temperatures all like trillion degrees all just running into each other just like in CERN. And then you had the actual things we know today. And then you had atoms basically, there was a time when matter overtook anti-matter. And I spelled that one wrong too, anti-O matter. And about one second into the big bang we had basically mostly matter and anti-matter all disappeared pretty much. And then we had atoms forming at 3000 years. And then suddenly you see the darker area over there to the right of that cone. Essentially that is a really cool time because then atoms formed and all of a sudden the universe would become black. In other words, it was transparent. You could see and stars formed, the galaxies formed. That's the hatching of the cosmic area, absolutely. So that is formed in the universe as we know today. And then what else, and here again I'm watching my time, I'll be there in a couple minutes, is essentially this is another view. And I've got the, this is in Quanta Magazine and I've got the back of 2020 in October. Somebody imagined the standard model instead of being flat like on a piece of paper. They imagined it like this. And there's your colors by the way, red, green, blue. And you've got your three generations of each particle, a quark over there on the left. And you've got your anti-quarks over the right and the Higgs boson in the middle creating mass on there. And just it's kind of a beautiful little thing because, and then the neutral color ones are the other particles, leptons and stuff, just cool, cool, cool, stuff like that. And basically we only have a small number of elementary particles even though we've detected lots of different bigger ones that are all composed of those. Now, I will leave you with this. I always like to see some of this stuff. But over on the left, this was actually going around for several years, this is what they hoped to see if they detected the Higgs boson. And indeed they found it because this is a prediction of what they would see because the Higgs boson, yeah, I love it, would break down and this is what they predicted to see at CERN and they did. And then over on the right is a very fantastic kind of view of what those two big reds in the blue are essentially up and down quarks and then you've got little glue-ons and they're all interacting. Yeah, I think so too. It's a very imaginative type of view of what could be happening inside a proton. Very, very cool. Okay, and that is my presentation for today. Does anyone, and let me see, it's gotta be resident. Okay, there we go. Anyone have any questions, comments? A great Christmas tree. Yes, well adorned, I agree, beautiful. Okay, I hope you got something out of this particle physics is not a, oh, thank you. Okay, it's not a subject that you take lightly. But the idea is that I hope to give you an idea how we learn some of this stuff that there isn't just an input and amount of things that everything in the universe is created by just a few little elementary particles. And it's cool. It's all been done within, you know, not that long. Doki-doki, what do we have? Ooh, yes, go for it. Thank you all for coming and what do we have next week? We should advertise that. A good point there. Okay. Yeah, so far so good. When you're falling, that's a good dialogue then. Oh, thank you, thank you. Okay, what do we got next week? I gotta look it up. Yeah, we should advertise what we have next week. A panel? Who do the panel? Ministry for the Future on the 27th. And then more about dinosaurs and methamphetamines and just all kinds of cool stuff. Lions, spiders, yeah. So physicists do have a sense of humor. You know, you got charm and strange and truth and beauty and has to be absurd to be funny. Okay, I was wondering about the ministry part. Created in the Paris Climate Accord. Okay, good.