 Dwy ymwyaf nid yw'n bywys, ythodol ziwethaf ydi amser hynny yn ymrydbeithiau sy'n iawn. Felly o maen nhw'n ddweud yma. Rwy'r 12 lŷnodd gyngorau am y maen nhw gyda i gynnig ymddangos yma, i gydag ein maen nhw am eu colegau, ychydig o uns i niolol, i gydag eu gan ymgyrchu cymdeithasol. Roi'n credu i'r cyfroloedd yma yma? Roi'r cyfeithr hefyd. Mae'r Ffwg Rhaol oedd ydy'r gweithiwn yn ystod yn 1660. Beth yna'r ffordd o ymdweithio ymddangos, efallai dyna'r ystyried yma ryw, y bydd y ddweud y tîm o ddyn nhw ar ymddangos cymaint, o ddyn nhw'n ddyn nhw'n ddyn nhw'n ddyn nhw'n ddyn nhw'n ddyn nhw. Rwy'n eich bod yn gwneud o ddyn nhw'n ddyn nhw'n ei gweld maen nhw'n edrych o'r cymaint cyfan, But it'll be hard to say that it's not going to have an enormous impact on all of our lives, graffine and 2D materials going forward. The second reason is that this is really the end, at least for the time being, of a culmination of events we've been running around graffine and 2D materials to bring together the academic community, industry, policy makers, to look at how the UK can begin to exploit some of this technology Ieith y dyfa'r geisio'r rhesaith gweithio rhagoliau 나는au ac'r gofal o roi'r un o'r ydydd i'r un oed na'r Unig. Fe fyddai, astud yw Iog, mae gennych â'r hynny, felly Rheinid, ond Iog wedi gyrdd i'r hyn sydd yn Niithni Targyl. Mae'n ddidsgwyd gan hynny'n gwylio'r hollwch wrth i gael rhesaith ac mae'n meddwl oedd ysbyn iawn. neu ddaeth y dweud y gallwch chi'n mynd i'r llwyfynu. Felly byddwch chi'n bwysig i'r ddweud. A i'n dweud i'n dweud, yr yw'r ysrwm yn y gyllid, gyda'r bordau gwysig yma yn ym Mhwyaf i Eurwyr. Ond mae'n oed yn cyffredinol o'r materiol, ymlaen, ymlaen, ysgrifennu cydylch, ond rydyn ni wedi'i ei wneud bod yw'r blod yn ychydig, ac yn dod o'r ddechrau amser gael ar y ddechrau, dwi'n gwybod ni'n fwrdd i'w ddweud i'r gweithio'r cyfnod. Yn datblygu. Rwy'n meddwl, mae'n colleg a'r gweithio'r clywed yng nghyddiadau'r Ondre Gyme, yn ddweud o'r 1 o 195 o'r cyflwytaeth yn gweithio'r prif ar gyfer gwahodol. Byddwn ni'n gweithio ar yr age of 36. Felly, y gallwn yn gweithio i gael fy modd ar y cyflwytaeth, ond rwy'n cymryd ymlaen i'r gweithi bwysig, y gweithio'r gweithio yn gwybod yr adnod. It's too late for some of us but you need to get a move on. So it's not often that you get the opportunity to hear such an eminent scientist speak and for me it's a real privilege to introduce him to you. So, ladies and gentlemen Professor Constantine Novozolof yw'r cyffredin iawn, a he's going to talk to us about graffine materials in the flat land. Ddechrau wasgwyddoedd yn bach yn rhan. Mae'r rai cyfnod, ddodd, i chi fyddi'ch gwneud. Rydyn ni wedi bod wedi mynedd o'u cael gweithio am ddoes iawn bydd gaf dances yng Nghymru. a gael cyd-dweud o'r bydd. Ac rwyf i'n edrych o'r ddillegu i ddim yn gweithio i ddim yn gweithio'r bydd. Rwy'n fawr i'r cyffredi gael ei ddysgu i amdano yn ei ddillegu, ac rwyf i'r byddai o'r llwyddoedd y gallu tufyrdd, ac mae'r gwneud. Ychydig i ddim yn ddechrau'u cyllideb. Yn y peth o'r peth oed, The present government announced the creation of the UK National Graphene Institute. So that's how it's supposed to look like in about a year time. That's how it looked a few months ago, when we were doing archaeological survey, ac yn ei ffordd am yw'r rai'r holl o'r oedd ymddiadolol ar gyfer y dîm, 1719 i 1840, ac yn y tufyn yw dywedodd yn y wneud yn y ddefnyddio'r bwysig, felly yn ysgol yw'r ddiadol, yw'r ddechrau ddau, yw'r ddweud. Wrth bod ni'n credu i ddweud o'r ddweud o'r ddweud o'r ddweud o'r ddweud, But this gentleman was at Smaamba, that's why we can find some information about it. Any guess, a gentleman with a beard, 1820, Manchester? Frederick Hagnos. And then the story is that every single building on the campus yn ymweld i'r cyfrifio'r ddau i'w cyfrifio'r union. Felly, Fyzex yn ymweld i'w cyfrifio'r gyfrifio ym Mhwyl Fyrwyr, Maes, a Gwyrnodd, Fyrwyr, a'r cyfrifio'r cyfrifio'r union. Felly, mae'r cyfrifio ymweld i'w cyfrifio'r cyfrifio'r union. Rydyn ni'n rhaid i'w ymweld i'r cyfrifio'r CEO, ddim eisiau leoedd ymweld i'u cyfrifio'r cyfrifio'r union. A'r gyrfaen, y gwasanaeth y gallwn y gynllunio sydd yna yma yn cael ychydig i gyda'r cwmdeithasol, nid ydych chi'n gwneud y cymunedau? On i wnaeth oherwydd y cyffredin cyflwyno eich cyfrifesol o'r fawr yn cael 2015, ond byddwn ni'n rhaid yn ei ddefnyddio'r cyfrifesol o'r bydd yma yn cael y blaen. Felly mae'r gydig iawn yn cael y fawr yn cael ei ddefnyddio yma yn cael y cwrnod. knows with the labour government who might be allowed to co-ask the angels' burden, especially because because angels was advocating for new technologies to promote the technological progress although ond mae'r cyfreifio yn oed i'r ffordd yn y gwaith cyffredinol. Mae'r cyffredinol, ond... Mae'n fawr i'w ddod, mae'n fawr i'w gweithio, ac mae hi'n gweld rhywbeth. Felly, byddwch i'r graffin a dwi'n gweithio ar y cyfweld cyllid yma, yn ymgyrchu'r hynny, yn ymgyrch. Let me start with really the basics, let me start with the introduction of what is graphene. The best way to introduce it, the way usually people introduce it is to ask the audience to think about different forms of carbon in terms of dimensionality. We know very well that the three-dimensional form of carbon is graphite and we know it for good 500 years and I will come later to this date. Felly, o'r 500 yma, nes bod nid o'r ffordd hynny fe, fyddwn ni'n cael ei amser yn gyntaf. Felly, o'r 30 yma, mae'r 0 yma ychydig y form ffordd cyfnogi, y bollau cyfnogi, y bollau cyfnogi wedi'i gwaith. Felly, o'r 10 yma, mae'r 1 yma y form ffordd cyfnogi na ddych chi wedi'i'r 10. Mae'r ddweithio amser yn agaf o'r ymgyrchol yma, Felly, y cyfnodd cyfnodd yn gweld i'r ffordd, mae'r ffordd yn fawr yn ymddiol cyntaf, ond nid oedd yn ddwy'r cyfrifol. Ac mae'r ffordd yn gweithio'r cyffredinol, ond haf y gallwn gweld i'r ffordd yma yma yw'r ffordd yn cyfnodd, y ffordd yn cyfrifol, ac mae'r ffordd yn cyfrifol 500 yma, ymddiol o bach, ymddiol o bach, ac mae'r ffordd yn cyfrifol ar y ffordd, which is the newest member of the family. Well, it's, of course, graphene which is studied theoretically the most because it's the simplest possible form, just flat arrangement of carbon atoms, hexagonal lattice, and theories don't lie complicated problems. So they would solve this very simple problem on the hexagonal lattice and they would say that caged molecules is just wrapped graphene ac yn cael gwahanol ar gyfer gyflwyno a'r graffa arall y cyfrannu i'r ardal. Felly mae'n bwysig iawn, mae'n ddechrau'r tyniol, yn gwybod o'r llwy fath yn wneud, neu mae yma'r hollion gweld i'n gwneud. Os y gallai gynnau yn ddau'r hynny'n gweithio'r cyfrannu. You probably already notice that I stole the title of my talk from the famous book of Edwin Abbott's habit. And as the book itself will have two paths, first is this world, the two-dimensional world in this book. Then we will try to make a connection to the three-dimension world later. So why two dimensionality is so important? ? Is because it is very hard to obtain two-dimensional crystals. Her is a model of 400 carbon atoms play with each other at elevated temperatures. Sometimes they look like their forming flat structures. But in fact, if you allow them to play for much longer, they will always come into some three-dimensional arrangement. There are many reason behind that, sure friendship tension and theã elimination of the danglin llwyd, yn ei ffordd edrych, ond mae'n gwneud加入illwyr cythrydu llwyd-dweud ar nifer cael tua cyllid bwyl etc. Yr hyn ar hynny, mae'n gymhwylliant trafnod mwy o'r rhaglen. Fy gynnwys cyntaf ynes ar y cyfathal gyda ni. Bydd y cysylltu cyntaf yma yng Nifer clywed. Byddwn i chi felly, mae'n cael cyfathal cyllid cynif, mae'nllenwys golygu yna ddi'r cyfathal erbyn tfifolwyr, dyfwyr ohod gyfnod, a'i'r ddifolwyr a'r ddifolwyr cyfan, i lawr, newid, amdano. Felly dyw'r ymlaen i awgwr Feeling tym an repent ymlaen i fynd o'r fydd yn ei bod arno o'r fath o'r flwyr arno roi ddim Mullwyr, ac mae'n gwrs o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r fath o'r llwyll The solution is quite simple. You have to start with the three-dimensional object, so you grow the three-dimensional object like graphite at high temperature, and then you use low temperature and try to exfoliate it and slice it into individual planes. And it's known that graphite is quite easy to slice into quite thin platelets, so those are the SEM images of those, but you do it at home every time you use a pencil, because when you draw a line on a paper with a pencil, what you do, you exfoliate graphite. You leave a trace of exfoliated graphitic particles. However, what you need is quite thick particles, because you want to see what you're writing, though there are quite a few of those which are quite thin, which you don't see, and that's exactly of interest for us, because the idea is, can we try to isolate and slice it up to the model layer? Quite a few people tried it, and so here is a pencil trace on a special substrate under a microscope, so the purple color is the substrate, it's silicon-silicon oxide, and the graphitic particles of different thicknesses can be seen as different colors. Those whitish are the thickest ones, and then the light blue and then blue and purple are the more darker purple it becomes, the thinner it is, and those which you practically cannot see those are exactly the model layers. At first it took us quite a bit of searching through those crystals, however, because our first samples were quite small, just about a micromethe large, but it's already enough for our technology of application technique to produce certain meaningful devices out of it, but our days were quite good at our scribbling, and we can exfoliate millimeter-sized crystals without any problems. Immediately after people isolated it, they jumped into the research of those crystals, and quite a number of very interesting and very unique properties have been discovered. Of course, the thinnest possible material is the strongest, the most conductive, the most thermally conductive, the most impermeable, the most elastic, and so on and so on, and as I usually say, the most important property in this list of those three dots because we come across the new interesting properties and come with new ideas quite often basically on the monthly basis. Let me now try to pinpoint where all those properties are coming from, and I'll especially talk about the electronic properties of this material, and you would have to be with me for a couple of slides, so if you manage within the next two slides then you would manage through the last of the lecture easily. All those properties are really coming from the hexagonal symmetry which we have for carbon atoms in graphene. The hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms looks extremely simple, but in fact it's not as simple as possible, it's not one of the six simple brival lattices because you cannot take one atom and replicate this hexagonal structure. You always need two, so I colored them differently, the red and the green, of course in reality they are not colored, but you can always distinguish between them so all the red would have a neighbor from the bottom and all the green would have a neighbor from the top. Because we have two atoms per unit cell, we always have to play with combinations of two electrons which are living on those two sides, on the green and on the red side. And because we have to play with those two, we create two energy bands which are crossing at two very special points of the thermal surface and this gives us the linear dispersion relation for our quasi-particles. Let me summarize what is so special, why this linear dispersion relation is so special. Generally all the materials which we are used to have or the electrons there can be described by Schrodinger equation and there is momentum and there is mass in this equation. All those materials can be divided into two large parts, one those metals or semiconductors where electrons conduct electricity or those where holes conduct electricity, so the n-type and the p-type. To make connection to real world it's like having a country with single-party system, so you are free to move within this country, that's how you move within either p-type or n-type semiconductor, but then when you try to connect the two you create a barrier. So you try to connect the two countries you would have a border control because it's impossible to convert one into another. There is always a band gap and there is always a border control, so in brief in two sentences that's how modern electronics work. You need two countries or two materials with different types of carriers there, electrons and holes, you can connect them and you can control your current. In graphene the situation is very different because we have linear dispersion relation, we don't have mass in the equation, there is only momentum. So we have massless particles, so that's the situation which people are used to in high energy physics for example, and it means that there is a certain symmetry between your electrons and holes or it's so-called chiral symmetry, or if we talk in the language of relativistic physics is the symmetry between particles and antiparticles, they are basically described by the same equation and by the same wave function. So if I need to create similar example for graphene I would have to use United States where you might have one state to be republican, another one is democratic, but you can always go from one state to another without any problems on the border control because you can always convert from electrons to holes because there is no band gap. Just to make the situation even worse we can play with new generation of those exotic particles, we can create massive carol fermion, I don't think that those exist in relativistic physics and I don't have a country to represent those so I won't go into details on that. So this very special linearity special relation also guarantees us that we have very special electronic properties because those electrons they can be converted into holes and back quite easily, they don't scatter as much as the regular electrons in any other materials. So the figure of merit for the amount of scattering, the mobility which shows you how fast electron travel through the crystal is extremely high there. So at room temperature is about a quarter of a million at load and temperature is a few millions and just to give you something to compare this number for silicon is about a thousand and in the best hemp transistors which are in your mobile phones is about 50,000 so graphene is doing reasonably well on this scale. There are problems with it because those electrons are massless, we cannot stop them, we cannot create a barrier which would stop those electrons and that's to rephrase it in the language of acoustic physics is so-called the client paradox and that gives us a little bit of a headache when we try to create a logic. A transistor for logic applications but people are working on this. Let me probably skip this. So optical properties are quite interesting, optical properties of graphene are quite interesting and unique as well. You might ask what kind of optical properties you can get, it's only one atom thick, say we have millions of atoms between me and you and I can see easily what an extra layer of atoms would do. Well it's surprising but it absorbs quite a large fraction of light, namely 2.3% so this picture is a real optical picture of graphene so there is graphene here, there is nothing just void and there are two layers of graphene and I hope you can see slight contrast there. So this contrast is about 2.3% so one layer of atoms absorb quite a sizeable fraction of light. Even more interestingly this 2.3% is not just a number, it's actually given by a combination of the most fundamental constants, it's pi times alpha is defined structure constant. So do it at home, 3.14 divided by 1 through 7 you get 2.3%. So it doesn't depend on any material parameter, wherever in the world you prepare graphene it absorbs always the same amount of light so what you do you pick up a piece of graphene, look through it and the contrast which you see gives you the most fundamental constant of this universe. Now 2.3% is of course quite a large number for physicists, we can measure it quite easily, however it's extremely low number for device engineers that would kill to have a material which absorbs only 2.3% of light and would be as conductive as graphene because it would be in the heart of any application, any device which would require transparency. It's transparent and conductive coating like LCD display or touch screens or solar cells and so on. And here we created an LCD, one pixel of an LCD display where graphene has been used as a transparent conductive coating to replace ITO and it does work, you can pinch off the optical transmission quite easily. And here we benefit from its high transparency, high connectivity but also from the fact that it's inert and also flexible material so it can be used for future devices. And this basically brings us to the application that in principle they are quite realistic but before I go to the applications which will be, before promising you some future applications let me show you what graphene has done for us already because I try to demonstrate it or to always demonstrate it. So, one thing it did already, created workplaces, say a year ago I would say not many, we had three spin-offs from our university, there are few from others so it wasn't much however this year the number of companies which produce graphene cell graphene or use graphene in some applications grew quite dramatically so it was meant as a joke a couple of years ago, it's not a joke anymore and especially it's not a joke because about a year ago I received my regular copy of the glamour magazine and then on one of the pages you find five jobs our kids will be doing and then right next to virtual architect, avatar stylist, active makeup developer there is graphene engineer and if stated by glamour it should be true. Then it also provides entertainment, I guess many of you follow the big man theory, for those who don't it's sitcom for it's the American sitcom, it's about four postdocs in Caltech and one of the major characters Sheldon, the stream theorist and in one of the episodes he was trying to resolve the question why electrons in graphene move as quasi relativistic particles, you all know this now but it took him the whole episode long to realize why it's so and it's not a surprise because some of the formulas they are actually wrong so it's not they are not for monolagraphene, they are for bilagraphene which we didn't discuss. It also gives Sheldon if you fancy to move to Tallahassee floor you can quite as well live on the graphene lane so the houses are so so there but it's a new lane, it's just starting. Realistically it has a number, there are opportunities for a number of applications, I'll just give you another one which is being used already so that's the use of graphene as a support to study biomolecules in transmission electron microscopy because what you need there is a support which you won't notice so it's extremely thin but at the same time it should be conductive and mechanically strong and transparent for electrons and if possible it would be regular so you would be able to filter out the diffraction peaks from your support and that's all graphene and here is an example of how we used it to look at the in this case abacamazaic virus and you can see the virus quite easily so without any staining and it's a product from several companies. That's actually generally I think although many applications are being focused on electronic properties and the optical properties my personal feeling is that the life science applications are going to be larger than those. Just to give you one example is the DNA sequencing through pores in graphene, several groups demonstrated it, I thought it's a nice idea for a research lab but I'm not sure if it can be taken forward, apparently there are companies now who are pushing this idea forward and they're actively developing it. And generally the health care, there are a number of areas where graphene can be used in the health care like in the artificial organs like artificial eye or artificial skin that's the membranes and sensors, lots of applications on the sensor side or on drug delivery side. So generally the applications on the bias side are probably going to dominate in the next 5, 10 years. So lots of applications are realistic, we spoke about the touch screen, the LCD display, the solar cells, the tactile display which is one of my favorite. People in Cambridge are developing it and it's a funny application but it will probably go through because what is good about everybody nowadays are using those smartphones and they are always good apart when you are on a lecture like this. Because when the lecture is boring on the old phone you could feel the patterns and you could text and do your work at the same time looking straight into my eyes. With these phones you cannot do it because you have to look at your phone. So tactile display sends high frequency, well it's not actually very high just AC signal to the buttons so you actually can feel the buttons on your smartphone and you can use it on the lectures like this just still looking into my eyes. In electronics lots of applications in sensors and transistors composite materials and energy like super capacitors and barriers and batteries so those are all being developed as we speak. Now you probably have already noticed what is the potential problem there because those applications are of course realistic but do we have that amount of graphene available? I showed you this single pixel for the LCD display and that was 30 micron in size and of course for your lounge you want not 30 microns but 30 inch display so can we get what is the state of the mass production of this material at the moment. Before we go to the mass production of graphene let me talk a little bit about the mass production of graphite because I simply love this story and it has some connections with the Northwest in general. So graphite has been obtained for the first time in a place called Seathwaite in the Borough there where really close to Kazik and this day 1564 is when two raw commissions travelled there and they applied the raw commission for the use of those mines. I didn't know how to use graphite at that time but it was already taxed as usual. So you still can go there and those mines are still preserved with extremely nice inside, you still can collect some of the graphite and then surprisingly it made its way across Europe quite fast because the next mention of graphite we find in the book of Conrad Gersnaw 1565 published in the year of his death and where he already described the first pencil. We probably actually know that he never seen this pencil he used the correspondence with his German friend to get this picture so it shows that the English graphite made its way across Europe. Now the owners of those mines were extremely fast in recognizing the strategic importance of this material so they inflated the prices artificially by closing the mines for most of the time and opening it only once every seven years roughly. So the prices indeed went extremely high and at a certain moment a pound of graphite was a pound sterling and a pound sterling at that time was quite a large amount of money. It would be a weekly wage for the workers who worked in those mines so the problem with stealing and unauthorized access to those mines was extremely severe so the owners even pushed for special legislation through the parliament which dealt specifically with the stealing and unauthorized access to those mines and the punishment for that was public whipping and a year of hard labor and I still remind to every student in our lab that this legislation is still true. If you touch graphite you will condemn for three years of hard labor as a PhD student and then public whipping at your Viva. So now the very title of this slide the black market actually comes as they claim in the Catholic Museum of pencil it comes from the illegal market of graphite which existed in the 17th century Britain. I'm not sure how true is it but it's not my theory. So our days there is a reasonably legal market of graphite. There are a few companies actually quite a few companies there already one of the first one was a company opened by our students the graphite industries and they started with selling graphite at some ridiculous price of one pound per square micron. Is it remember I'm not sure how much justifiable taste and it was a cave for the very beginning because our original samples were extremely small so they were barely could afford the postal expenses. However as the sizes of the crystals went higher and higher you can try to extrapolate the price and then one sample was a million so I always tell to the oldness that their business is not really sustainable but apparently they still work. And but luckily our days there are several other means how to how to create graphite so the mechanical exploration of a pencil is is one method which is the preferable method for most of the experimentalist in the world. However there are CVD graphite which allows you to grow extremely large areas so you can buy a 10 meter long roll of graphite easily and there is a company which produces 300 square meters of graphite a day so that's not an issue. There are a few other methods like epitechial growth on silicon carbide and for low tech applications there is always chemical exhalation either directly or through the through the graphene oxide. But now before we go but I'm not going to go much into details on those it's a reasonably established technology and people are making it cheaper and cheaper and now it's extremely robust and viable technology. I want to go now to a little bit of beyond graphene so obviously with the announcement with the announcement of this National Graphene Institute our students who are always active and bright eyes, bushy tails they always ask for more and they keep asking so now we have all those money. Can we buy some equipment probably and rather than buying just the lead pencil can we buy the raw set of the pencils and try to exfoliate other materials as well and in principle it does work you can create two dimensional crystals out of other materials as well. The most used our days are more of nitrides, molydineum of the sulphide, tungsten of the sulphide, some complex oxides and apparently it's what you can do you basically create a whole family of two dimensional crystals. All of them are just one and thick but they are quite stable and their properties quite often are very different from the properties of the three dimensional precursors of their parent material so they pretty much all of them are worthwhile to investigate and to study and there are lots of groups in the world who do those investigations. There is another way how to produce new two dimensional crystals is to think about carbon or sorry is to think about graphene as a large scaffolding and as a large aromatic molecule which is suitable for chemical modification and then you can run various chemistry on it like you can attach fluorin atoms on top of it and you basically get fluorography in it or two dimensional Teflon if you want or you can do that. You can attach hydrogen and you get so called graphene and both materials are quite stable and both materials are very different from graphene itself but apparently you can attach pretty much anything so carbon is extremely reactive material of course extremely reactive atoms so you can attach and the force electron there is free so you can use it for your chemistry. So now we are getting to the second part which will be shorter to the second part of my talk same as they in the in the book itself from the two dimensional world to the three dimensional world so we have this and just let me give you a little bit of an introduction for this for this part. If you think about it on the few materials really determine our worlds for electronics it's all silicon of course for construction engineering it's mainly steel for airspace engineering it's aluminum a little bit of titanium and we learn to live with it but it limits the opportunities quite severely. Because when before developing any application what an engineer should do is to consult tax book and look what silicon can do for me what kind of bang gap what kind of doping can I get and then you are allowed to construct your new application based on those on those parameters we learn to live with it we simply don't notice it but it is there. Instead if you won't be limited by those constraints you will be able to create new applications so and those those do exist already use you try to combine different materials together and that's the subject for composite materials and heterostructures and that is extremely successful area because say. Lots of lasers are coming coming this way the hand transistors are coming this way composite materials and plastics are. Is basically a result of mixing several materials the properties of several materials together carbon fibers being used in in airspace engineering of course so it does exist already but it's it is only limited those only limited examples. What would be really nice if you start with the application think what kind of material with with what kind of properties do you need and then you design a material for your applications really ideally just starting atom by atom so you would be able to. To to design with extremely high precision any any properties into this material and any functionality you want say you want the top layer to be to act as a sensor the next one as a as a solar cell to provide power the next one as a transistor the next one as a support layer or conductive layer and so on. And with the appearance of the of those of this family of the two dimensional crystals in principle we do have this opportunity we do have this platform because what we can do we can now if we have a library and a catalog of those of those materials we just start with the application and we. Try to combine individual crystals but then in random model in the order which we want to create a new material a new three dimensional crystal which doesn't exist in nature which but which we can design and create in the lab and it would be. We can do it with really high precision atom but with the atomic precision basically and it would give us the functionality which we want. So we can quite easily design this to be a transistor and so that's actually is a transistor believe me and that's as a solar cell and then that's as as as something else and it's not science fiction so that's those are the examples of the structures which we already created and which do work as transistor or solar cell or even LED as an LED. Well and there are quite a number of the materials which are available to us and we use and we produce different to this is for example with different parameters from this from this technology. Unfortunately of course our days it's all in the lab we have to do it manually we take one layer of atom and put it manually on top of another one and then put another one and put another one. So it's quite an elaborately quite an elaborate process but our students are getting extremely good good at it but the the you pay this high price for the level of flexibility and you can basically put contacts anywhere and you can address every single layer of atom so it's a new it's a new level of of of flexibility. Oops sorry. Now we're getting. Probably easier to go this way so it's a new it's a new level of flexibility and because we can the range of the properties of those materials is extremely large and the number of those materials is large as well so we can we can create the heterostructures which are extremely. A rich and and and multifunctional as well so. Just to I wanted to give you two examples one is how good are those heterostructures you will think that if you create something by hands and the hands are always always dirty so what what what kind of quality can you get so here is an example of one of one of our heterostructures so we took an actual device. So that's how you look like it says it says it's a specific device used for the study of drug and I'm not going to to to go into into it but what we did we cut out a small piece out of it extremely thin piece and we took it out and we used it we put it into the transmission electron microscope and you can see in in in transmission all the all the. There is there and so what what you see is the underlying borom nitride and there is a layer of graphene and there is another layer of borom nitride and then there is graphene as well and you can see that the periodicity is is there and here is an example here what we started to his borom nitride which is a lathe material as well then we put two layers of graphene on top then we put two layers of borom nitride and to layers of graphene. of graphene and two layers of borob nitride and two layers of graphene. It's not just for the sake of impressing. It's an actual device. We studied resonant tanneling through this barrier with a quantum well inside. But if you look at the dark field image of this, you won't notice where the underlying borob nitride stops and the layer of the heterostructure of graphene and borob nitride starts. So the periodicity is practically unpeach up, so the quality of those heterostructures is extremely high. Just to give you an example that the variety of the materials which we can use is quite large as well, we also produce tanneling, so-called tanneling transistors made from very unconventional material. Traditionally people use borob nitride thanks to the sulphide, but in principle you're not limited by anything as long as it is reasonably high quality material, quite thin, can be exfoliated into more or less and there are no defects. For example, we can use clay thermocolite and one of the reasons why we decided to use this for our transistors because you can buy it in any convenience shop. It's basically the main ingredient of your cat liter boxes. The only trick is to use it before it's been in the boxes, so not after, and then it's actually the transistors which we can produce from those materials, do work. It also gives us extremely rich physics there, and just to name a few, the fractional quantum holofact drug, the so-called Hofstater butterfly on the Marat pattern between graphene and borob nitride. There are quite a few extremely exciting physical experiments which have been produced already on quite simple helichodra structures and those helichodra structures are getting more and more complicated every day. In terms of applications, we're working on the future devices. Some time ago, we tried to produce a timeline for future applications and we offered a logic transistor somewhere in 2030, 2025. Those transistors are quite likely to be based on those heterostructures, but we need a little bit of time, of course, to develop those. There are quite a number of other applications for graphene in telecommunications. Now, I'm not going to go into all those applications, just let me say a couple of words how realistic are those timelines. So when we were trying to predict the future a couple of years ago, we published it, and of course we were quite anxious because we had to just how things had been developing. We had to predict that the first applications should be coming out already 2013, 2014. So basically now, and we were quite anxiously waiting for this year and the next year, can we see any actual applications on the market? And my favorite line about those predictions are by Arthur Clarke, which basically says that if you learned one thing from the history of invention and discovery that in the long run and often in the short one, the most daring prophecies seem laughably conservative. So we were quite anxious for this year where the touchscreen displays should appear on the market, and we were quite lucky that there is one company, US slash Chinese company, which now produce touch panels made of graphene, and then they don't only produce it, but they actually sell it. According to them, they sell 2 million per month, but only in China. So there is quite a good chance that if you buy a phone in a small shop in China, it would have a touchscreen made of graphene. So just let me finish that the work which we do for example on those transistors, so it looks extremely academic, but we are quite proud that large companies are following our footsteps. So Samsung followed our step on those transistors which basically give us the insurance that the physics which we do and the technology which we develop will be one day used in the real life applications. And let me finish with this, just put a few conclusions here, but the most important slide is to thank all my collaborators. There is a big group of people who are actually working their night on those developments, and I'm really grateful for their support and their collaboration. Thank you so much.