 My presentation will be about inequality of opportunity. So in global comparisons, the MENA region or the data that we have on the region, the official statistics official survey, show that inequality is relatively low compared to other regions. And as we have heard in other sessions, in other parallel sessions earlier today, social contract in the MENA region, and the guaranteed job in the public sector has helped reach those findings. Yet inequality is perceived as a major factor in all the uprisings that happened in many of the Arab countries in 2010, 2011. And the World Bank has called that the Arab inequality puzzle. So how the data is showing us relatively low levels of inequality while this has led to revolutions in many countries. So it's important to mention the data issue there in the region and that the official statistics are not capturing a very important part of the population, those are the top decides and their expenditure. And maybe if that is taken into account, inequality would have been much higher and some studies and reports by the ESQUA have actually showed that inequality in that case, if top incomes are taken into consideration, would be rising. So we do have literature on inequality in the Middle East and North Africa that has showed, so some of it is about the frustration of youth in employment. Other studies about income inequality as outcome, inequality, till recently little was known about inequality of opportunity in the region. So few studies started doing that in the beginning of the 2000s. Just focusing on inequality of opportunity in health and education, but recently several studies have been done on the topic and okay, I really like that one because usually that's the question that also students ask whether we should focus on inequality of outcomes or opportunity and actually both are important as one is closing the other, but the academic literature and I think after the keynote lecture of this morning, inequality of opportunity is becoming really important for policy makers as well. So inequality of opportunity in the literature, so I'll skip that. This is just defining what we mean by opportunity and the definition of circumstances and I think we had long discussions about that during the day. Okay, so this is the literature we have on inequality of opportunity. We have one interesting study and to my best knowledge, this is the only study that has focused on income, inequality of opportunity income by Kraft, Assad, Dromer and Salih Isfahani that shows that actually in a number of Arab countries, Tunisia, Egypt and Jordan, inequality of opportunity and income is relatively moderate. When it comes to child health, it was shown in other studies that circumstances explain a major part of inequality when it comes to child health. And then we have a relatively larger literature on the region on inequality of opportunity in education. This presentation is actually not showing findings of one single research piece but in number of studies that I've worked on, one of them is an Esquire report that came out in 2019 and another study that I've recently worked on and a study actually that where we looked at inequality of opportunity in educational attainment in different Arab countries. Okay, so let me start by showing you some descriptives on access. So since we'll be talking a lot about circumstances in the next couple of minutes. So these are about access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation by place of residence, so area whether it's urban or rural, in a number of many countries. So you can see that for a number of countries that access has actually or for almost all countries that access has improved over time. However, the gap is clear between those living in rural and those living in urban countries. And in a country like Palestine that gap has even been aggravated, has widened actually over time. So when we compare 2006 and 2014 you can see that gap getting bigger. And similar results when it comes to sanitation. Now we're doing the same exercise but this time looking at differences based on the level of education of the head of the household. So we're comparing two extreme households, one with no education and the other one with 12 years or more years of education. And again you can see that the region is doing relatively well when it comes to access to those basic services, even for households for which the head has no education, which is confirming actually what Vladimir was showing in his presentation that in terms of outcomes, a lot of improvement was observed. Now when it comes to wealth it's more problematic. You can see the large gaps between richest and the poorest households in some countries like Palestine, Yemen, but also Iraq and Mauritius. You can see that this gap is really huge. In other countries like Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan, they're doing slightly better. But in general, you know, the upper middle class starting from the middle rich and richest household, they're doing pretty well in general. The poorest in some countries still can access those basic services, but in some countries they don't. So now that leads us actually to have a quick look at inequality of health opportunity. So this is looking at stunting by education of the health of the household. And you can see that the probability of stunting is pretty low in most countries except Sudan and Yemen that have higher probabilities. And also the gap is negligible in most countries. But when we look at it by wealth, quintile, similar results, so Sudan and Yemen is doing worse than the other countries when it comes to stunting. But in general, you know, the other middle countries are doing pretty well. Now what we're doing here, we are looking at the Shapley decomposition. Again, for stunting to see which circumstances matter most when it comes to stunting. And as you can see, the darker, the dark blue part of the bars are the biggest, actually, which is wealth. So it seems wealth really matters, which was confirmed earlier with those descriptives. And then next we see the orange parts in some countries, which is the education of the health, of the household of the head, sorry. That also matters a lot. Here in Libya you can see wealth actually explaining more than 70% of stunting, which is pretty high. Same with infant mortality, that's the other health outcome we're looking at here, again, Shapley decomposition is showing us that wealth matters and the education of the head of the household. Area matters in some parts, so you can see in Jordan, but this effect is actually going down over time. So here in Jordan that was the case in 2002, but as you can see, the improvements in 2012. So in summary, analysis of inequality of opportunity in health indicates higher incidences of increasing inequality compared to inequality of outcomes. Now I'll move quickly. I have just a couple of minutes for inequality of opportunity in education. That's one graph actually that where we plotted or we regressed the average years of education over GDP per capita and as you can see, that most MENA countries are below the fitted line, which means that the years of education is relatively low compared to income and especially in GCC countries like Kuwait for example. But now if we focus on, okay, so that one, it was about different levels of education starting from ever-attending school to completing primary, completing secondary, et cetera, okay. So that's the similarity index. So it is showing that inequality of opportunity is really low actually when it comes to ever-attending school to entering school, but it increased with increasing levels of education. So you can see that the highest is for secondary education which will be confirmed later when we look at sharply the composition, okay. So this one is for attending school. And again, it's the same as the ones I was showing earlier for health. So this is showing that again, gender is not representing, is not explaining a large part of inequality of opportunity for attending school, but the education of the head of the household does, right. So the orange part of the bars seen in Libya really, really matters followed by household wealth. So again, that confirms what we saw earlier in the descriptives. Education of the parents of the head of the household and household wealth explain most of inequality of opportunity when it comes to education. And this is confirmed also for inequality of opportunity for primary, completing primary education and for secondary education. This is a recent study. It's actually the only advantage of showing you these is that we have more recent data for Jordan. This was only about Jordan. And it's basically, I'm keeping those here just to show you that over time, even in using the latest data for Jordan, same findings were found that the education of the head of the household and household wealth are the variables that matter most. So, in summary, inequality of opportunity in education in manner remains high, especially at higher levels of education, namely secondary level and above. Despite progress in inclusive access, household wealth and the education of the head of the household continue to be the primary determinant of inequality of opportunity. So, I just want to conclude by saying that the manner of region has achieved significant human capital gains. This is what we saw earlier, leading to decreasing outcomes inequality, but that wasn't really translated into decreasing inequality of opportunity as well. What we need, so here we're suggesting and that was also from the report, the Esquire Report of 2019 about inequality in the manner region that good governance would actually help by designing policy that effectively targets the most disadvantaged groups. And I'll stop here, thank you very much.