 1. Part 2 of Mutual Aid, a factor of evolution. This is a library box recording. All library box recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit librarybox.org, recording by Encore. Mutual Aid a factor of evolution by Peter Kropotkin. First part of chapter 2, Mutual Aid among Animals, Open Bracket, Continued, Close Bracket. As soon as spring comes back to the temperate zone, myriads and myriads of birds, which were scattered over the warmer regions of the south, come together in numberless bends, and full of vigor and joy, horse turn northwards to rear their offspring. Each of our hedges, each grove, each ose shown cliff, and each of the lakes and ponds with which northern America, northern Europe and northern Asia are dutted tell us at that time of the year, the tale of what Mutual Aid means for the birds, what force, energy and protection it confers to every living being, however feeble and defenseless it otherwise might be. Take for instance one of the numberless lakes of the Russian and Siberian steppes. It shows our people with myriads of aquatic birds belonging to at least a score of different species or living in perfect peace or protecting one another. For several hundred yards from the shore, the air is filled with gulls and turns as with snowflakes on a winter day. Thousands of plovers and sandcourses run over the beach, searching their food, whistling and simply enjoying life. Further on, on almost each way, a duck is rocking, while higher up, you notice the flocks of the Kazarki ducks, exuberant life forms everywhere. Open footnote, Sievetsov's Periodical Phenomena, page 251, close footnote. For the robbers, the strongest, the most cunning ones, those ideally organized for robbery, and you hear they are hungry, angry, dismal cries as for hours in succession, they watch the opportunity of snatching from this mass of living beings, one single unprotected individual. But as soon as they approach, their presence is signaled by dozens of voluntary sentries and hundreds of gulls and turns set to chase the robber. Maddened by hunger, the robber soon abandons his usual precautions. He suddenly dashes into the living mass, but attack from all sides, he again is compelled to retreat. From sheer despair, he falls open to the wild ducks, but the intelligent social birds rapidly gather in a flock and fly away. If the robber is an urn, they plunge into the lake if it is a falcon, or they raise a cloud of water, death and be wild, ever asigant if it is a kite. Open footnote. Sievetsalits coated by Bram, 4th 760, close footnote. And while life continues to swarm on the lake, the robber flies away with cries of anger and looks out for Corian, or for a young bird or a field mouse, not yet used to obey in time the warnings of its comrades. In the face of an exuberant life, the ideally armed robber must be satisfied with the awful of that life. Further north into the arctic archipelagos, you may sail along the coast for many miles and see all the ledges, all the cliffs and corners of the mountain sites, up to a height of from 2 to 500 feet, literally covered with seabirds, whose wide-breasts show against the dark rocks, as if the rocks were closely sprinkled with chalk specks. The A&E I&4 is said to say, full with fouls. Open footnote. The arctic villages of A&E, Nordens, Jordan, London 1879, page 135, see also the powerful description of a saint killed the islands by Mr. Dixon, open bracket coated by Cibbon, close bracket and nearly all books of arctic travel. Close footnote. Each of such bird mountains is a living illustration of mutual aid, as well as of the infinite variety of characters, individual and specific, resulting from social life. The oyster catcher is renowned for its readiness to attack the birds of prey. The botch is known for its watchfulness and it easily becomes the leader of more placid birds. The turnstone when surrounded by comrades belonging to more energetic species is a rather timorous bird, but it undertakes to keep watch for the security of the commonwealth when surrounded by smaller birds. Here you have the dominatifs ones. They are the extremely sociable, kitty-wacky girls, among whom carrels are raw and short. The preprocessing polar gilmot, which continually carries each other, the egoist chigus, who has repudiated the orphans of a kill comrade and by her side another female who adopts anyone's orphans and now paddles surrounded by 50 or 60 youngsters whom she conducts and care for as if they all were her own breed. Side by side with the penguins which steal one another's eggs, they have the deatres whose family relations also charming and touching, but even passionate hunters recall from shooting a female surrounded by her young ones over aider ducks, among which open brackets like the velvet ducks over corollaires of a safanas close brackets. Several females hatch together in the same nest over lumps which sit in turn upon a common covi. Nature is a variety itself, offering all possible varieties of characters from the basest to the highest and that is why she cannot be depicted by any sweeping assertion. Still less can she be judged from the moralist point of view because the views of the moralists of themselves are result mostly unconscious of the observation of nature. Coming together at nesting time is so common with most birds that more examples are scarcely needed. Aux groupes of crows nests, our hedges are full of nest of smaller birds, our form houses give shelter to colonies of swallows, our old towers of the refuge of hundreds of nocturnal birds, and pages might be filled with the most charming descriptions of peace and harmony which prevail in almost all these nesting associations. As to the protection derived by the weakest birds from their unions, it is evident. That excellent observer Dr. Aquas, so for instance the little cliff swallows nesting in the immediate neighborhood of a prairie falcon open bracket, falco poliogus close bracket, the falcon had its nest on the top of one of the minarets of clay which are so common in the cannons of colorado, while a colony of swallows nested just beneath. The little peaceful birds had no fear of the rapacious neighbor, they never let it approach to the colony, they immediately surrounded it and chased it so that it had to make off at once. Open footnote, a lead quest in built-in U.S. geological survey of territories, fourth number 7, page 556 579 etc. Among the girls, open bracket, lares, origin, tatus, close bracket, poliakov saw on a march in northern Russia that the nesting routes of a very great number of these birds were always patrolled by one male, which won the colony of the approach of danger. All birds rose in such case and attacked the enemy with great vigor. The females which had 506 nested together on each nulle of the march, kept a certain order in leaving their nest in search of food. The flegions which otherwise are extremely unprotected and easily become the prey of the rapacious birds were never left alone. Open bracket, family habits among the aquatic birds in proceedings of the zoological section of St. Petersburg, Society of Nature December 17, 1874, close bracket, close footnote. Life in societies does not cease when the nesting period is over. It begins then in a new form. The young boots gather in societies of youngsters generally including several species. Social life is practiced at that time, chiefly for its own sake. Partly for security, but chiefly for the pleasures derived from it. So we see in our forest, the societies formed by the young nut touchers. Open bracket, cita caesia. Close bracket, together with teat-mouses, chaffinches, rents, tree-creepers or some wood-buckers. Open footnote, brem fatter coated by ebrem, fourth 34 sequins. See also white natural history of cell-bone. Letter 11, close footnote. In Spain, the swallow is met with in company with castells, fly-catchers and even pigeons. In the forest of America, the young horn-locks live in large societies together with another lock, open bracket, sprags. Close bracket, the skylock, the savannah sparrow and several species of buntings and longspers. Open footnote. Doctor Quest, Dracota and Montana in built in U.S. Survey of territories, fourth number 7, close footnote. In fact, it would be much easier to describe the species which live isolated than to simply name those species which join the autumn nut societies of young birds not for hunting or nesting purposes but simply to enjoy life in society and to spend their time in pleasant sports after having given a few hours every day to find their daily food. And finally, we have that immense display of mutual aid among birds where migrations which I dare not even enter upon in this place. Suffisant to say that birds which have lived for months in small beds scattered over a wide territory gather in thousands. They come together at a given place for several reasons succession before they start and they evidently discuss the particulars of the journey. Some species will indulge every afternoon in flights, preparatory to the long passage. All wait for their tour decongeniers and finally they start in a certain well chosen direction. A fruit of accumulated collective experience. The strong less flying at the head of a bed and reliving one another in that difficult task. They cross the seas in large beds consisting of both big and small beds and when they return spring they repeat the same spot and in most cases each of empty exposition of the very same nest which it had built or repaired the previous year. Open footnote. It has often been intimated that larger birds may occasionally transport some of the smaller birds when they cross together the Mediterranean. But the fact still remains doubtful. On the other side it is certain that some smaller birds generate the bigger ones for migration. The fact has been noticed several times and it was recently confirmed by Elbuksbom at Ruhnhain. He saw several parties of cranes which had logs flying in the midst and on both sides of their migratory columns. Open bracket. The azoologist got an 1886 page 133. Close bracket. Close footnote. This subject is so false and yet so imperfectly studied. It offers so many striking illustrations of mutual aid habits subsidiary to the main fact of migration each of which would however require a special study that I must refrain from entering here into more details. I can only casually refer to the numerous and animated gatherings of birds which take place always on the same spot before they begin their long journeys north or south as always those which one sees in the north after the birds have arrived at their breeding places on the Yenise or in the northern counties of England. For many days in succession sometimes one month they will come together every morning for one hour before flying in search of food perhaps discussing the spot where they are going to build their nest. Open footnote. H. Sibom and C. H. Dixon both mentioned this habit. Close footnote. And if during the migration their columns are overtaken by a storm birds of the most different species will be brought together by common misfortune. The birds which are not exactly migratory but slowly move northwards and southwards with the seasons also perform these peregrinations in flocks. So far from migrating isolated in order to secure for each separate individual the advantages of better food or shelter which ought to be found in another district they always wait for each other and gather in flocks before they move north or south in accordance with the season. Open footnote. The fact is well known to every field naturalist and with reference to England several examples may be found in Charles Dixon among the birds in northern shires. The chaffinchers arrived during winter in those flocks and about the same time that is in November come flocks of bramblings that wings also frequent the same places in similar large companies and so on. Open bracket pages 165 166 Close bracket close footnote. Going now over to Marmer's which strike us is the overwhelming numerical predominance of social species of those few carnivores which do not associate the plateaus, the alpine tracks and the steps of the whole and new world are stuck with halls of deer, antelopes, gazelles, fallow deer, buffaloes, wild goods and sheep all of which are sociable animals. When the Europeans came to settle in America they found it so densely peopled with buffaloes but pioneers had to stop their advance when a column of migrating buffaloes came to cross the route they followed. The March post of the dense colon losting sometimes for 2 and 3 days and when the Russians took position of Siberia we found it so densely peopled with deer, antelopes, squirrels and other sociable animals but the very conquest of Siberia was nothing but a hunting expedition which lasted for 200 years while the gross plains of eastern Africa were still covered with hordes, composed of zebra, the horde beast and other antelopes. The long egg of the small streams of northern America and northern Siberia were peopled with colonies of beavers and up to the 17th century like colonies swarmed in northern Russia. The flat lands of the four great continents are still covered with countless colonies of mice, drums, quivers, marmots and other rodents. In the lower latitudes of Asia and Africa the forests are still the abode of numerous families of elephants, rhinocerosers and numberless societies of monkeys. In the far north the reindeer aggregate in numberless herds. While still further north we find the hordes of the musk oxen and numberless beds of polar foxes. The coasts of the ocean are enliven by flocks of seals and moses. It waters by shores of sociable citizens and even in the depths of the great plateau of central Asia we find hordes of wild horses, wild donkeys wild camels and wild sheep. All these mammals live in societies and nations sometimes numbering hundreds of thousands of individuals. Although now of the three centuries of gunpowder civilization we find that the debris of the immense aggregations of old. How to think in comparison with the other numbers of carnivores and how force therefore is the view of those who speak of the animal world as if nothing were to be seen in it the lions and hyenas plunging their bleeding teeth into the flesh of their victims. One might as well imagine that the whole human life is nothing but a succession of war massacres. Association and mutual aid are the rule with members. We find social habits even among the carnivores and we can only name the cap tribe, open bracket, lions, tigers, leopods etc. close bracket as a division the members of which decidedly prefer isolation to society and orbit seldom met with even in small groups and yet even among lions, this is a very common practice to hunting company open foot known as the secure wildbeats etc. volume 1st page 316 close footnote The two tribes of the civets open bracket Viveridia, close bracket and the wizards open bracket Mr Lidia, close bracket might also be characterized by the isolated life but it is a fact that during the lost century the common wizard was most accessible than it is now it was seen then in larger groups in Scotland and in the unto-wildened canton of Switzerland. As to the great tribe of the dogs, it is eminently sociable and association for hunting purposes may be considered as eminently characteristic of its numerous species it is well known in fact that wolves gather in packs for hunting and just the left an excellent description of how they drew up in a half circle surround a cow which is grazing on a mountain slope and then suddenly appearing with a loud barking make it roll in the abyss open footnote choose the teleband their Alpenwelt page 404 close footnote Ojubon in the 30s also saw the laboratory wolves hunting in packs and one pack following a man to his cabin and killing the dogs during severe winters the packs of wolves grossure numerous has to become a danger for human settlements as well as the case in France some 5 and 40 years ago in the Russian steppes they never attack the horses otherwise than in packs and yet they have to sustain bitter fights during which the horses open bracket according to calls testimony close bracket sometimes assume offensive warfare and in such cases if the wolves do not retreat promptly they run the risk of being surrounded by the horses and killed by the hoofs the prairie wolves open bracket canis latrans close bracket are known to associate in bands of from 20 to 30 individuals when they chase a buffalo occasionally separated from its part open footnote close footnote jacquers which are most courageous and may be considered as one of the most intelligent representatives of the dog trap always hunting packs thus united they have no fear of the bigger carnivores open footnote for their hunting associations C.I.T.N.S. Natural History of Zealand quoted in romanese animal intelligence page 432 close footnote as to the wild dogs of Asia open bracket the colzones or duels close bracket Williamson, Swapia, large packs attacking all larger animals save elephants and rhinoceros and overpowering bears and tigers hyenas always live in societies and hunting packs and the hunting organizations of the painted decaons are highly praised by coming nay even foxes which as a rule live isolated in our civilized countries c'est Emile Hutter's letter in Elbushner's Libé close footnote as to the polar fox it is or rather was in Stellar's time one of the most sociable animals and when one reads Stellar's description of a war that was waged by Bering's unfortunate crew against these intelligent small animals one does not know what to under at most the extraordinary intelligence of the foxes and the mutual aid they displayed in digging out food concealed under cairns or stored up in a pillar one fox will climb on its top and throw the food to its comrades beneath close bracket or the cruelty of men driven to despair by the numerous packs of foxes even some bears live in societies where they are not disturbed by men the Stellar saw the black bear of Kamchatka in numerous packs and the polar bears are occasionally found in small groups even the unintelligent insectivos do not always disdain association however it is especially with the rodents, the ungulata and the remnants that we find a highly developed practice of mutual aid the squirrels are individualists to a great extent each of them builds its own comfortableness and accumulates its own provision the inclination or towards family life and Brem found that a family of squirrels is never so happy as when the two birds of the same year can join together with their parents in a remote corner of the forest and yet they maintain social relations the inhabitants of the separateness remain in a close intercourse and when the pine cones become rare in the forest they inhabit they emigrate in bands as to the black squirrels of the forest they are eminently sociable apart from the few hours given every day to foraging they spend their lives in playing in numerous parties and when they multiply too rapidly in a region they assemble in bands almost as numerous as those of Lucas and most southwards devastating the forest, the fields and the gardens where foxes pull cast falcons and nocturnal birds of prey follow their thick columns and live upon the integers remaining behind the ground squirrel eclose the arching genius is still more sociable it is given to hoarding and stores up in its subterranean holes large amounts of edible roots and nuts usually plundered by men in the autumn according to some observers it must know something of the joys of emissor and yet it remains sociable it always lives in large villages and ojubons who open some dwellings of the haki in the winter found several individuals in the same apartment they must have stored it with common efforts the large tribe of the Mormons which includes the three gods genocers of Octomies, Sinomies and Speomorphidus is still more sociable and still more intelligent they also prefer having each one its own dwelling but they live in big villages that terrible enemy of the crops of south russia the susley of which some 10 millions or exterminated every year by men alone lives in numberless colonies and while the russian provincial assemblies gravely discuss the means of getting rid of this enemy of society it engines life in its thousands in the most joyful way their play is so charming that no observes could refrain paying them a tribute of praise and from mentioning the melodious concerts arising from the shop with slings of the mills and the melancholic with slings of the females before suddenly returning to his citizens duties he begins inventing the most jabolic means for the extermination of the little robbers all kinds of rapacious birds and beasts of prey having proved powerless the last word of science in this warfare is the inoculation of cholera the villages of the prairie dogs in america are one of the loveliest sites as far as the eye can embrace the prairie it sees heaps of earth and on each of them a prairie dog stands engage in a lively conversation with its neighbors by means of short walkings as soon as the approach of many signal all plunge in a moment into their dwellings all have disappeared as by ancient myth but if the danger is over the little creatures soon reappear whole families come out of their galleries and indulge in play the young ones crush one another they worry one another and display their gracefulness while standing upright and in the meantime the old ones keep watch they go visiting one another and the beaten footpaths which connect all their heaps testify to the frequency of the visitations in short the best naturalists have written some of their best pages in describing the associations of the prairie dogs of america the moments of the old world and the polar moments of the alpine regions and yet I must make as regards the moments the same remark as I have made when speaking of the beasts they have maintained their fighting instincts and these instincts reappear in captivity but in their big associations in the face of free nature the unsociable instincts have no opportunity to develop and the general result is peace and harmony even such harsh animals as the rats which continually fight in our cellars are sufficiently intelligent not to quarrel when they plant our lauders but to aid one another in their plundering expeditions and migrations and even to feed their invalids as to the beaver rats or musk rats of Canada they are extremely sociable Odubon could not but admire their peaceful communities which require only being left in peace to enjoy happiness like all sociable animals they are lively and playful they easily combine with other species and they have attained a very high degree of intellectual development in the villages always disposed on the shores of lakes and rivers they take into account the changing level of water the doomship houses which are built of beaten clay interwoven with reeds have separate corners for organic refuse and they are also well-corporated at wintertime they are warm and nevertheless well ventilated as to the beavers which are endowed as known with the most sympathetic character they are astounding dams and villagers in which generations live and die without knowing of any enemies but the otter and men so wonderfully illustrate what neutral aid can achieve for the security of the species and the evolution of the intelligence that they are familiar to all interested in animal life let me only remark that with the beavers the musk rats and some other rodents we already find the feature which will also be distinctive of human communities that is working common I pause in silence the two large families which include the Djibua the Chinchilla, the Biscacha and the Tushkan or underground hair of South Russia though all these small rodents might be taken as excellent illustrations of the pleasures derived by animals from social life open-foot nerd with regard to the Biscacha it is very interesting to note that these highly sociable little animals not only live visciably together in each village but that whole villages visit each other at night sociability is thus extended to the whole species not only to a given society or to a nation as we saw it with the ants when the format destroys a Biscacha burrow and burrows the inhabitants under a heap of earth over Biscachas we are told by Hudson come from a distance to dig out those that are buried alive one bracket LC Biscachas 311 This is a wildly known fact in La Plata verified by the author close foot nerd Precisely the pleasures because it is extremely difficult to see what brings animals together the needs of mutual protection or simply the pleasure of feeling surrounded by the congeniors at any rate our common hairs which do not gather in societies for life in common and which are not even endowed with intense parental feelings cannot live without coming together for play nor to reach the wind girl who is considered to be among the best acquainted with the habits of hairs describes them as passionate players becoming so intoxicated by their play that a hair has been known to take an approaching fox for a playmate open foot nerd handbook for jugger on Jack Barrett tigger coated by bram second 223 close foot nerd As to the rabbit it lives in societies and its family life is entirely built upon the image of the old partial call family the young ones being kept in absolute obedience to the father and even the grand father open foot nerd and here we have the example of two very closely allied species which cannot bear each other not because they live upon nearly the same food as like cases or too often explained but most probably because the passionate eminently individualist hair cannot make friends with that plastic quiet and submissive creature rabbit the temples are too widely differed not to be an obstacle to friendship life in societies is again the rule with a large family of horses which includes the wild horses and donkeys of Asia the zebras, the mustangs, the simarons or the pampas and the half wild horses of Mongolia and Siberia they all live in numerous associations made up of many studs each of which consists of a number of males under the leadership of a male inhabitants of the old and the new world badly organized on the whole for resisting both their numerous enemies and the adverse conditions of climate would soon have disappeared from the surface of the earth were it not for their sociable spirit when a beast approaches them several studs unite at once they repel the beast and sometimes chase it and neither the wolf nor the bear not even the lion can capture a horse or even a zebra as long as they are not detached from the horde when a drought is burning the growth in the prairies they gather in hordes of sometimes 10.000 individuals strong and migrate and when a snow storm reaches in the steps each stud keeps close together and repels the protected ravine but if confidence disappears or the group has been seized by panic and disperses the horses perish and the survivors are found after the storm half dying from fatigue union is the chief army in the struggle for life and man is the chief enemy кажoues accélérations d' Vitale sur le terrain qui used àikes on est uniment on est reliant par le champ par la f Ms par l'arrêt par l'assistance par la f par le choc par le pied zibra, qui n'est jamais venu ensemble avec la doule zibra, n'est jamais plus vivant en excellents termes, pas seulement avec les triches, qui sont très bonnes, mais aussi avec gazelles, plusieurs espèces d'antelopes et de loups. Nous avons donc un cas de discrètes mutuelles entre la coaga et la doule, qui ne peuvent pas être expliquées par la compétition pour la nourriture. Le fait que la coaga vivait ensemble avec l'humidité de la nourriture dans la même grosse que elle-même exclut cette hypothesis et nous devons regarder pour quelque incompatibilité du caractère, comme dans le cas de l'homme et de l'humidité. Cf, entre autres, Glyph, Lips, Olaise, Big Game, Shooting, Open Bracket, Badminton, Ibrary plus Bracket, qui contient une excellente illustration de diverses espèces vivant ensemble dans l'Afrique, plus Wutnut. Beaucoup de illustrations de la vie sociale pourraient être taken de la vie de la Reindeer, et surtout de cette grande division de ruminants, qui peuvent inclurent les robes, les falodiers, les antelopes, les gazelles, les ibex, et en fait, le whole of the three numerous families of the antelopes, the capris and the ovids, the watchfulness of the safety of their hearts against attacks of carnivores, the anxiety displayed by all individuals in the heart of Sharma, as long as all of them have not cleared the difficult passage of the rocky cliffs, the adoption of orphans, the despair of a gazelle whose mate, or even comrade of the same sex, has been killed, the place of youngsters, and many of the features could be mentioned. Perhaps the most striking illustration of mutual support is given by the occasional migrations of falodiers, such as who I saw once on the Amur, when I crossed the high plateau and its border reach, the great king gun on my way from Transbaikalia to Mergen, and further traveled over the high praises on my way to the Amdo. I could ascertain how thinly people with falodiers, these mostly uninhabited regions or open footnotes, our tungus hunter was going to marry and therefore was prompted by the desire of getting as many firsts as he possibly could, was beating the hillsides all day long on horseback in search of deer. His efforts were not rewarded by even so much as one falodier killed every day, and he was an excellent hunter. Close footnotes, 2 years later I was travelling up the Amur, and by the end of October, reached the lower end of that picturesque gorge, which the Amur perces in the Deux-Aleens. Open bracket, little king gun, close bracket, before he enters the lowlands where he joins the Summary. I found the Cossacks in the villages of that gorge in the greatest excitement, because thousands and thousands of falodiers were crossing the Amur where it is nearest in order to reach the lowlands. For several days in succession, upon a length of some 40 miles of the river, the Cossacks were butchering the deer as they crossed the Amur, in which already floated a good deal of ice. Thousands were killed every day and the exodus nevertheless continued, like migrations were never seen either before or since, and this one must have been called for by an early and heavy snowfall in the great king gun, which compelled the deer to make a desperate attempt at reaching the lowlands in the east of the Deux Mountains. Indeed, a few days later, the Deux-Aleens was also buried up in the snow 203 feet deep. Now when one imagines the immense territory, or open bracket, almost as big as Great Britain, close bracket, from which the scattered groups of DMS have gathered for immigration, which was undertaken under the pressure of exceptional circumstances, and realizes the difficulties which had to be overcome before all the deer came to the common idea of crossing the Amur further south, where it is nearest, one cannot but deeply admire the amount of sociability displayed by these intelligent animals. But if we remember that the Bouffalos of North America displayed the same powers of combination, once of them grazing in great numbers in the plains, but these numbers were made up by an infinity of small groups which never mixed together, and yet when necessity arose, all groups however scattered over an immense territory came together and made up those immense columns, numbering hundreds of thousands of individuals which I mentionned on a preceding page. I also ought to say a few words at least about the compound families of the elephants, their mutual attachment, their deliberate ways in posting centuries and the feelings of sympathy developed by such a life of close mutual support. According to Samuel W. Baker, elephants combine in larger groups among the compound family. I have frequently observed, he wrote, in the portion of Ceylon, known as the poor country, tracts of elephants in great numbers which have evidently been considerable hurts that have joined together in a general retreat from a ground which they considered insecure. Open bracket, wild beast, and their ways, volume 1, page 102, close bracket, close footnote. I might mention the sociable feelings of those disreputable creatures, the wild boars, and find a word of praise for their powers of association in the case of an attack by a beast of prey. Open footnote, pigs, attack by wolves, do the same. Open bracket, Hudson, LSE, close bracket, close footnote. The hippopotamus and the rhinoceros too would occupy a place in a work devoted to animal sociability. The royal striking pages might be given to the sociability and mutual attachment of the seals and the wild roses, and finally one might mention the most excellent feelings existing among the sociable Cetiasians. But I have to say yet a few words about the societies of monkeys which acquire an additional interest from there being the link which will bring us to the societies of primitive men. It is hardly needful to say that those mammals which stand at the very top of the animal world and most approach men by their structure and intelligence are eminently sociable. Evidently, we must be prepared to meet with all varieties of characters and habits in so great a division of the animal kingdom which includes hundreds of species, but all things considered, it must be said that sociability, action in common, mutual protection, and a high development of those feelings which are the necessary outcome of social life are characteristic of most monkeys and apes. From the smallest species to the biggest ones, sociability is a rule to which we know but a few exceptions. The nocturnal apes prefer isolated life. The capuchins, open bracket, sebous capuchinus, close bracket, the monos and the howling monkeys live but in small families and the orangutans have never been seen by A or Y-less, otherwise than either solitary or in very small groups of three or four individuals while the gorillas seem never to join in bands. But all the remainder of the monkey tribe, the chimpanzees, the sadjus, the sakes, the mandrel, the baboons, and so on are sociable in the highest degree. They live in great bands and even join with other species than their own. Most of them become quite unhappy when solitary. The cries of distress of each one of the bands immediately bring together the whole of the band, and they boldly repose the attacks of most carnivores and birds of prey. Even eagles do not dare attack them. They plunder our fields always in bands, but all ones taking care for the safety of the commonwealth. The little titis, whose childish treats they serve so much succumbled, embrace and protect one another when it rains, rolling their tails over the necks of the shivering comrades. Several species display the greatest solicitude for their wounded and do not abandon a wounded comrade during a retreat till they have ascertained that it is dead and that they are helpless to restore it to life. Thus James Forbes narrated in his Oriental Memoirs, a fact of such resistance in reclaiming from his hunting party the dead body of a female monkey, but one fully understands why the witnesses of this extraordinary scene resolve never again to fire at one of a monkey race. Open footnote, romanese animal intelligence, page 472, close footnote. In some species, several individuals will combine to overturn a stone in order to search for art's eggs under it. The Hamadrias, not only post-centrities, but have been seen making a chain for the transmission of a spoil to a safe place and their carriage is well known. Brem's description of a regular fight, which his caravan had to sustain before the Hamadrias would let it resume its journey in the valley of the Mensa in Abyssinia, has become classical. Close footnote, Brem, 1st, 82, Dorwin's Descent of Men, chapter 3, The Coastal of Expedition of 1899-1991, have also had to sustain in northern Tibet a similar fight. Close footnote, the playfulness of the tailed apes and the mutual attachment, which reigns in the families of chimpanzees also are familiar to the general reader. And if we find among the highest apes two species, the orangutan and the gorilla, which are not sociable. We must remember that both, limited as we are to very small areas, the one in the heart of Africa and the other in the two islands of Boney and Sumatra, have all the appearance of being the lost remnants of formerly much more numerous species. The gorilla at least seems to have been sociable in olden times, if apes mention in the periodus, really well gorillas. We thus see even from the above brief review, that life in societies is no exception in the animal world. It is the rule, the law of nature and it reaches its fullest development with a higher vertebrate. Those species which live solitary or in small families only are relatively few and their numbers are limited, nay, it appears very probable that apart from a few exceptions, those birds and mammals which are not gregorious now, were living in societies before men multiplied on the earth and waged a permanent war against them, or destroyed the sources from which they formerly derived food. On ne s'associe pas pour mourir, was the sound remark of Esminas, and who knew the animal world of some parts of America when it was not yet affected by men, wrote to the same effect. Association is found in the animal world at all degrees of evolution and according to the grand idea of Herbert Spencer, subordinately developed in Perrier's Colony Animal, these are at the very origin of evolution in the animal kingdom. But in proportion, as we ascend the scale of evolution, we see association growing more and more conscious, it loses its purely physical character, it seizes to be simply instinctive, it becomes reasoned. With a higher vertebrates, it is periodical, or is resorted to for the satisfaction of a given want, propagation of a cbc, migration, hunting or mutual defense, it even becomes occasional when birds associate against a robber, or mammals combine under the pressure of exceptional circumstances to emigrate. In this lost case, it becomes a voluntary deviation from habitual moods of life. The combination sometimes appears in two or more degrees. The family first vent the group and finally the association of groups habitually scattered but uniting in case of need, as we saw it with the business and the luminance. It also takes higher forms, guaranteeing more independence to the individual without depriving it of the benefits of social life. With most rudents, the individual has its own dwelling, which it can retire to when it prefers being left alone, but the dwellings are laid out in villages and cities so as to guarantee to all inhabitants the benefits and joys of social life. And finally, in several species, such as rats, mambots, haires etc., sociable life is maintained that withstanding the quarrelsome or otherwise egotistic inclinations of the isolated individual, thus it is not imposed as is the case with ants and bees by the very physiological structure of the individuals. It is cultivated for the benefits of mutual aid or for the sake of its pleasures, and this of course appears with all possible gradations and with the greatest variety of individual and specific characters, the very variety of aspects taken by social life being a consequence and for us a further proof of its generality. Open footnote. The most strange was it to read in the previously mentioned article by Hexley the following paraphrase of a well-known sentence of Rousseau. The first man who substituted mutual peace for that of mutual war, whatever the motive which impaled them to take that step created society. Open bracket 19th century, February 1888, page 165, close bracket, society has not been created by man, it is anterior to man. Close footnote. End of the first part of chapter 2, Recording by Enko. If you would like to send me an email, you can reach me at EnkoBilal at yahoo.com. That's E-N-K-O-B-I-L-A-L at yahoo.com. Second part of chapter 2 of mutual aid, a factor of evolution. This is a library vox recording. All library vox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit libraryvox.org. Recording by Enko. Mutual aid, a factor of evolution by Peter Cropotkin. Second part of chapter 2, Mutual aid among animals, open bracket, continued, close bracket. Sociability, that is the need of the animal of associating with its like, the love of society for society's sake, combined with the joy of life, only now begins to receive due attention from the zoologist open footnote. Such monographs as the chapter on music and dancing in nature, which we have in Hudson's naturalism on the Laplata and Carl Gross play of animals, have already thrown a considerable light open and instinct, which is absolutely universal in nature. Close footnote. No and the present time, that all animals, beginning with the arts, going on to the birds and ending with the highest mammals, are fun of place, wrestling, running after each other, trying to capture each other, teasing each other and so on. And while many plays are, so to speak, a school for the proper behavior of the young in nature life, there are others which, apart from their utilitarian purposes, are together with dancing and singing, mere manifestations of an excess of forces, the joy of life and a desire to communicate in some way or another, with other individuals of the same or of other species, in short a manifestation of sociability proper, which is the distinctive feature of all the animal world. Open footnote. Not only numerous species of birds possess the habit of assembling together, in many cases always at the same spot, to indulge in antics and dancing performances, but W. H. Hudson's experience is that nearly all mammals and birds open bracket, probably there are really no exceptions, close bracket indulge frequently in more or less regular or set performances, with or without sound or composed of sound exclusively. Open bracket page 264, close bracket close footnote, whether the feeling be fear, experienced at the appearance of a bird of prey or a fit of gladness, which burst out when the animals are in good health and especially when young, or merely the desire of giving play to an excess of impressions and of vital power, the necessity of communicating impressions of playing, of chattering or of simply feeling the proximity of over 100 living beings, per this nature and is as much as any other physiological function, a distinctive feature of life and impressionability. This need takes a higher development and attains a more beautiful expression in mammals, mostly amidst their young and still more among the birds, but it pervets all nature and has been fully observed by the best naturalists, including Pierre Hubert, even amongst the ants and it is evidently the same instinct, which brings together the big columns of butterflies, which have been referred to already. The habit of coming together for dancing and of decorating the places where the birds habitually perform their dances is of course well known from the pages that Darwin gave to this subject in The Descent of Man, point bracket, chapter 13, close bracket. Visitors of the London Zoological Gardens also know the power of a satin-bower bird, but this habit of dancing seems to be much more widely spread than was formerly believed and Mr. W. Hudson gives in his masterwork on La Plata, the most interesting description, which must be read in the original of complicated dancers performed by quite a number of birds, whales, jackanas, lapwings, and so on. The habit of singing in concert, which exists in several species of birds, belongs to the same category of social instincts. It is most strikingly developed with a chakor, open bracket, chenard chavaris, close bracket, to which the English have given the most unimaginative misnomer of crested screamer. These birds sometimes assemble in immense flocks, and in such cases, they frequently sing all in concert. W.H. Hudson found them once in countless numbers, range all around a Pampas lake in well-defined flocks of about 500 birds in each flock. Presently, he writes, one flock near me began singing, and continued their powerful chant for three or four minutes. When they ceased, the next flock took up the strings and after it, the next and so on, until once more the notes of the flocks on the opposite shore, came floating strong and clear across the water, then passed away growing thinner and thinner, until once more the sound approached me traveling round to the side again. On another occasion, the same writer saw a whole plane covered with an endless flock of chakors, not in close order, but scattered in pairs and small groups, about nine o'clock in the evening, so they leave an entire multitude of birds covering the marsh for miles around, thus forth in a tremendous evening song. It was a concert well worth riding a hundred miles to here, open footnote, for the choruses of monkeys, sea brem, close footnote. It may be added that, like all sociable animals, the chakor easily becomes tame and grows very attached to men. They are mild-tempered birds and very rarely quarrel. We are told, although they are well provided with formidable weapons. Life in societies renders these weapons useless. But life in societies is the most powerful weapon in the struggle for life, taken in its widest sense, has been illustrated by several examples on the foregoing pages, and could be illustrated by any amount of evidence if other evidence were required. Life in societies enables the feeblest insects, the feeblest birds, and the feeblest mammals to resist or to protect themselves from the most terrible birds and beasts of prey. It permits longevity. It enables the species to rear its progeny, with le least waste of energy, and to maintain its numbers, albeit a very slow birth rate. It enables the gregarious animals to migrate in such of new abodes, therefore wildfully admitting that force, swiftness, protective colors, cunningness, and endurance to hunger and cold, which are mentioned by Darwin and Wallace, or so many qualities making the individual or the species the fittest under certain circumstances. We maintain that under any circumstances, sociabilité is the greatest advantage in the struggle for life. Those species which willingly or unwillingly abandon it or doomed to decay, while those animals which know best how to combine, have the greatest chances of survival and a further evolution, although they may be inferior to others in each of the faculties and merited by Darwin and Wallace, save their intellectual faculties. The higher invertebrates, and especially mankind, are the best proof of this assertion, as to their intellectual faculties. While every Darwinist will agree with Darwin that it is the most powerful arm in the struggle for life, and the most powerful factor of further evolution, he also will admit that intelligent is an eminentative social faculty. Language, imitation, and accumulated experience are so many elements of growing intelligence, of which the sociable animal is deprived. Therefore, we find, at the top of each class of animals, the arts, the parrots, and the monkeys, all combining the greatest sociabilité with the highest development of intelligence. The fittest are, first the most sociable animals, and sociabilité appears as the chief factor of evolution, both directly by securing the well-being of the species while diminishing the waste of energy and indirectly by favoring the growth of intelligence. Moreover, it is evident that life in societies would be utterly impossible without the corresponding development of social feelings and especially of a certain collective sense of justice growing to become a habit. If every individual were constantly abusing its personal advantages without the others interfering in favor of the wronged, no society life would be possible, and feelings of justice develop more or less with all gregarious animals. Whatever the distance from which the swallows or the cranes come, each one returns to the nest it has built or repaired last year. If a lazy sparrow intends appropriating the nest which a comrade is building or even steals from it a few sprays of straw, the group interferes against the lazy comrade, and it is evident that without such interference being the rule, no nesting association of birds could exist. Separate groups of penguins have separate resting places and separate fishing abodes. And do not fight for them. The droves of cattle in Australia have particular spots to which each group prepares to rest and from which it never deviates and so on. Open footnotes. Hey God, bush life in Australia. Page 58. Close footnotes. We have any numbers of direct observations of a peace that prevails in the nestic associations of birds, the villages of the rodents and the hordes of grass eaters. While on the other side we know of few sociable animals which so continually carrel as the rats in our cellars do or as the moorsers which fight for the possession of a sunny place on the shore. Sociabilitie thus puts a limit to physical struggle and lives room for the development of better moral feelings. The high development of parental love in all grosses of animals, even with lions and tigers, is generally known. As to the young birds and mammals whom we continually see associating sympathy, nut love attains a further development in their associations. Living aside the really touching facts of mutual attachment and compassion which have been recorded as rigorous domesticated animals and with animals kept in captivity, we have a number of birth certified facts of compassion between wild animals at liberty. Max Perti et Elbouchneer have given a number of such facts. Open footnotes. To quote but a few instances, a wounded badger was carried away by another badger suddenly appearing on the scene. Rats have been seen feeding a blind couple. Open bracket, Cylen Laban, Theatere, page 64. Sequence. Close bracket. Bram himself saw two crows feed in a hollow tree, a third crew which was wounded. Its wound was several weeks old. Open bracket, post friend, 1874, 715. Butchner's Liebet, 203. Close bracket. Mr. Biff saw Indian crows feeding two or three blind comrades and so on. Close footnotes. GC Wood's narrative of a weasel which came to pick up and to carry away an injured comrade enjoys a well merited popularity. Open footnotes. Man and beast, page 344. Close footnotes. So also the observation of Captain Shansbury on his journey to Utah, which is quoted by Darwin. He saw a blind pelican which was fed and well fed by over pelicans, open fishers, which had to be brought from a distance of 30 miles. Open footnotes. LH Morgan, The American beaver, 1868, page 272. Descent of men, chapter 4. Close footnotes. And when a horde of vicunas was hotly pursued by hunters, H.A. Widdell saw more than once during his journey to Bolivia and Peru, the strong males covering the retreat of the horde and lagging behind in order to protect the retreat. As to facts of compassion with wounded comrades, they are continually mentioned by all field, zoologists, such facts are quite natural. Compassion is a necessary outcome of social life, but compassion also means a considerable advance in general intelligence and sensibility. It is a first step towards the development of higher moral sentiments. It is in its turn a powerful factor of further evolution. If the views developed on the preceding pages are correct, the question unnecessary arises. In how far are they consistent with the theory of struggle for life as it has been developed by Darwin, Wallace and their followers? And I will now briefly answer this important question. First of all, the naturalists will doubt that the idea of the struggle for life carried on through organic nature is the greatest generalization of our century. Life is struggle and in that struggle the fittest survive. But the answers to the questions by which arms is this struggle chiefly carried on? And who are the fittest in the struggle? Will Wally differ according to the importance given to the two different aspects of the struggle, the direct one for food and safety among separate individuals, and the struggle which Darwin described as metaphorical, the struggle very often collective against adverse circumstances. No one will deny that there is within each species a certain amount of real competition for food, at least at certain periods. But the question is whether competition is carried on to the extent admitted by Darwin, or even by Wallace, and whether this competition has paid in the evolution of the animal kingdom, the part assigned to it. The idea which permits Darwin's work is certainly one of real competition going on within each animal group for food safety and possibility of living and offspring. He often speaks of regions being stuck with animal life to their full capacity, and from that overstocking, he infers the necessity of competition. But when we look in his work for real proofs of that competition, we must confess that we do not find them sufficiently convincing. If we refer to the paragraph entitled, struggle for life most severe between individuals and varieties of the same species, we find in it none of that wealth of proof and illustrations which we are accustomed to find in whatever Darwin wrote. The struggle between individuals of the same species is not illustrated under a heading by even one single instance. It is taken as granted and the competition between closely allied animal species is illustrated by but five examples, out of which one at least open bracket relating to the two species of freshers cause bracket now proves to be doubtful. Open foot note, one species of swallow is said to have caused the decrease of another swallow species in North America. The recent increase of a missile fresh in Scotland has caused the decrease of the sun fresh. The brown rat has taken the place of a black rat in Europe. In Russia, the small cockroach has everywhere driven before it, it's greater congenial. And in Australia, the imported hive bee is rapidly exterminating the small stingless bee. Two overcasers but relative to domesticated animals are mentioned in the pristine paragraph. While recalling these same facts, A.R. Wallace remarks in a footnote relative to the Scottish freshers, prof. A. Newton, however, informs me that these species do not interfere in the way he has stated. Open bracket Darwinism, page 34, cause bracket. As to the brown rat, it is known that owing to its amphibian habits, it usually stays in the lower parts of human dwellings. Open bracket, low-sellers, sewers, etc. Cause bracket has also on the banks of canals and rivers. It also undertakes distance migrations in numberless bands. The black rat, on the contrary, prefers staying in our dwellings themselves under the floor, as well as in our stables and barns. It thus is much more exposed to be exterminated by men, and we cannot maintain with any approach to certainty that the black rat is being either exterminated or stuffed out by the brown rat and not by men. Close footnote. But when we look for more details in order to ascertain how for the decrease of one species was really occasioned by the increase of other species, Darwin with his usual fairness tells us we can dimly see why the competition should be most severe between allied forms, which feel nearly the same place in nature, but probably in no case could be precisely say why one species has been victorious over another in the great battle of life. As to Wallace, who cause the same facts under a slightly modified heading, open brackets struggle for life between closely allied animals and plants often most severe. Close brackets, he makes the following remark, which gives quite another aspect to the facts above quoted. He says, in some cases, no doubt, there is actual war between the two, the stronger killing the weaker, but this is by no means necessary, and there may be cases in which the weaker species physically may prevail by its power of more rapid multiplication. It's better withstanding these institutes of climate or its greater cunning in escaping the attacks of common enemies. In such cases, what is described as competition may be no competition at all. One species succumbs not because it is exterminated or stuffed out by other species, but because it does not well accommodate itself to new conditions which the other does. The term struggle for life is again used in its metaphorical sense and may have no other. As to the real competition between individuals of the same species, which is illustrated in another place by the cattle of South America during a period of drought, its value is impaired by its being taken from among domesticated animals. Beasons emigrate in like circumstances in order to avoid competition. However, severe struggle between plants, and this is amply proved, we cannot but repeat Wallace's remark to the effect that plants live where they can, while animals have to a great extent the power of choice of their abode, so that we again are asking ourselves to what extent does competition really exist within each animal species, upon what is the assumption based. The same remark must be made concerning the indirect argument in favor of a severe competition and struggle for life within each species, which may be derived from the extermination of transitional varieties so often mentioned by Darwin. It is known that for a long time Darwin was worried by the difficulty which he saw in the absence of a long chain of intermediate forms between closely allied species and that he found the solution of this difficulty in the supposed extermination of the intermediate forms. But it may be urged that when several closely allied species inhabit the same territory, we surely ought to find at the present time many transitional forms. By my theory, these allied species are descended from a common parent, and during the process of modification, it has become adapted to the conditions of life of its own region, and has supplanted and exterminated its original parent form and all the transitional varieties between its births and present states. Open bracket original species 6th edition, page 144, close bracket, also page 137, 296, open bracket, all paragraphs on extinction, close bracket, close footnote. However, an attentive reading of the different chapters in which Darwin and Wally speak of this subject soon brings one to a conclusion that the word extermination does not mean real extermination. The same remark which Darwin made concerning his expression, struggle for existence, evidently applies to the word extermination as well. It can by no means be understood in its direct sense but must be taken in its metaphoric sense. If we start from the supposition that a given idea is stuck with animals to its fullest capacity and that a keen competition for the sheer means of existence is consequently going on between all the inhabitants, each animal being compelled to fight against all its congeniers in order to get its daily food, then the appearance of a new and successful variety would certainly mean, in many cases, open bracket, though not always close bracket, the appearance of individuals which are enabled to say small than their fair share of the means of existence, and the result would be that those individuals would stop both the parental form which does not possess the new variation and the intermediate forms which do not possess it in the same degree. It may be that at the outset, Darwin understood the appearance of new varieties under this aspect, at least the frequent use of the word extermination conveys such an impression. But both he and Wally's new nature too well, not to percieve, that this is by no means the only possible and necessary course of affairs. If the physical and the biological conditions of a given area, the extension of the area occupied by a given species and the habits of all the members of the latter remained unchanged, then the sudden appearance of a new variety might mean the starving out and the extermination of all the individuals which were not endowed in a sufficient degree with a new feature by which the new variety is characterized, but such a combination of conditions is precisely what we do not see in nature. Each species is continually tending to enlarge its abode. Migration to new abodes is the rule with a slow snail as with a swift bird. Physical changes are continually going on in every given area, and new varieties among animals consist in an immense number of cases, perhaps in the majority, not in the growth of new weapons for snatching the food from the mouth of its congeniers. Food is only one out of a hundred of the year's conditions of existence, but as Wally's himself chose in a charming paragraph on the divergence of characters, open bracket, Darwinism page 107, close bracket informing new habits, moving to new abodes and taking to new sorts of food. In all such cases, there will be no extermination, even no competition, the new adaptation being a relief from competition, if it ever existed, and yet there will be of the at times an absence of intermediate links, in consequence of a mere survival of those which are best fitted for the new conditions. As surely as under the hypothesis of extermination of a parental form, it hardly need be added that if we admit dispenser all the Lamorcians and Darwin himself, the modifying influence of the surroundings upon the species, there remains still less necessity for extermination of intermediate forms. The importance of migration and of the consequent isolation of groups of animals, of the origin of new varieties and ultimately of new species, which was indicated by Maurice Wagner, was fully recognized by Darwin himself. Consecret researchers have only accentuated the importance of this factor, and we have shown how the largeness of the area occupied by a given species, which Darwin considered with full reason so important for the appearance of new varieties, can be combined with the isolation of parts of the species, in consequence of local geological changes or of local barriers. It would be impossible to enter here into the discussion of this white question, but a few remarks will do to illustrate the combined action of these agencies. It is known that portions of a given species will often take to a new sort of food. The scuberelles, for instance, when there is a scarcity of grains in the large forests, remove to a third tree forests, and this change of food has certainly well-known physiological effects on the scuberelles. If this change of habits does not last, if next year the grains are again plentiful in the dark log woods, no new variety of scuberelles will evidently arise from this cause. But if part of a wild area occupied by the scuberelles begins to have its physical characters altered, in consequence of, let us say, a milder climate or desication, which both bring about an increase of pine forests in proportion to the large woods, and if some other conditions conquer to induce the scuberelles to dwell on the outskirts of the desiccating region, we shall have then a new variety, that is an incipient new species of scuberelles, without there having been anything that would deserve the name of extermination among the scuberelles. A larger proportion of scuberelles of a new, better-adapted variety would survive every year, and the intermédiait links would die in the course of time, without having been starved out by multution competitors. This is exactly what we see going on during the great physical changes, which are accomplished over large areas in central Asia, owing to the desiccation which is going on there since the glacial period. To take another example, it has been proved by geologists that the present wild horse, open-bracket Equis Preswalski, close-bracket, has slowly been evolved during the later parts of the tertiary and the quaternary period, but that during the succession of ages, its ancestors were not confined to some given limited area of the globe. They wandered over both the old and new world, returning in all probability, after a time to the pastures which they had in the course of their migrations, formerly left over the footnotes. According to Madame Marie Pavloff, who has made a special study of this subject, they migrated from Asia to Africa, stayed there some time, and returned next to Asia. Whether this double migration become firm or not, the fact of a former extension of the ancestor of our horse over Asia, Africa and America, is settled beyond doubt. Consequently, if we do not find now in Asia all the intermediate links between the present wild horse and its asiatic post-tertiary ancestors, this does not mean at all that the intermediate links have been exterminated. No such extermination has ever taken place. No exceptional mortality may even have occurred among our ancestral species. The individuals which belong to intermediate varieties and species have died in the usual course of events, often amidst plentiful food, and their remains were buried all over the globe. In short, if we carefully consider this matter, and carefully read what Darwin himself wrote upon this subject, we see that if the word extermination be used at all in connection with transitional varieties, it must be used in its metaphoric sense as to competition, this expression too is continually used by Darwin. Upon bracket, see, for instance, the paragraph on extinction, close bracket, as an image or as a way of speaking, rather than with the intention of conveying the idea of a real competition between two potions of the same species for the means of existence. At any rate, the absence of intermediate forms is no argument in favor of it. In reality, the chief argument in favor of a king competition for the means of existence, continually going on within every animal species, is to use Professor Jad's expression, the arithmetical argument borrowed from Matus. But this argument does not prove it at all, we might as well take a number of villages en southeast Russia, the inhabitants of which enjoy plenty of food, but have no sanitary accommodation of any kind, and think that for the last 80 years, the birth rate was 60 in the thousand. While the population is now what is 80 years ago, we might conclude that there has been a terrible competition between the inhabitants. But the truth is that from year to year, the population remains stationary for the simple reason that one third of the newborn died before reaching the sixth month of life. One half died within the next four years, and out of each hundred born, only seventeen also reached the age of twenty. The newcomers went away before having grown to be competitors. It is evident that if such is the case with men, it is still more the case with animals. In the fevered world, the destruction of the eggs goes on such a tremendous scale, that eggs are the chief food of several species in the early summer. Not to say a word of storms, the inundations which destroys nests by the million in America, and the sudden changes of weather which are fatal to the young mammals. Each storm, each inundation, each visit of a rat to a business, each sudden change of temperature take away those competitors which appears so terrible in theory. As to the facts of an extremely rapid increase of horses and cattle in America of pigs and rabbits in New Zealand, and even of wild animals important from Europe, when bracket, where their numbers are kept down by men, not by competition, cause bracket, they rather seem opposed to the theory of overpopulation. If horses and cattle could so rapidly multiply in America, it simply proved that however numberless the buffaloes and other remnants were at that time in the new world, its gross eating population was far below what the prairies could maintain. If millions of intruders have found plenty of food without starving out the former population of the prairies, we must rather conclude that the Europeans found a want of gross eaters in America, not an excess, and we have good reasons to believe that want of animal population is a natural state of things all over the world. But we've but a few temporary exceptions to the rule. The actual numbers of animals in a given region are determined not by the highest feeding capacity of a region, but by what it is every year under the most unfavorable conditions. So pour ce raison alone, competition hardly can be a normal condition, but overcousses in the wind as well to cut down the animal population below even that low standard. If we take the horses and cattle which are grazing all the winter through in the steps of Trans Baikalia, we found them very lean and exhausted at the end of the winter. But the crew exhausted not because there is not enough food for all of them. The grass buried under a thin sheet of snow is everywhere in abundance, but because of the difficulty of getting it from beneath the snow, and this difficulty is the same for all horses alike. Besides, days of glaze frost are common in early spring, and if several such days come in succession, the horses grow still more exhausted. But then comes a snow storm which compares the already weakened animals to remain without any food for several days, and very great numbers of them die. The losses during the spring are so severe that if the season has been more inclement than usual, they are even not repaired by the new breeds, the most who has all horses are exhausted and the young foals are born in a weaker condition. The number of horses and cattle thus always remain beneath what they otherwise might be, all the year round there is food for 5 or 10 times as many animals, and yet their population increases extremely slowly. But as soon as the buried owner makes ever so small a provision of hay in the steppes, and throws it open during days of glaze frost or heavier snowfall, he immediately sees the increase of his herd, almost all three cross-eating animals, and many rodents in Asia and America being in very much the same conditions. We can safely say that their numbers are not kept down by competition, that at no time of the year, they can struggle for food, and that if they never reach anything approaching to other population, the causes in the climate are not in competition. The importance of natural checks to over multiplication, and especially they are bearing up on the competition hypothesis, seems never to have been taken into due account the checks or rather, some of them are mentioned, but their action is seldom studied in detail. However, if we compare the action of the natural checks with that of competition, we must recognize at once that the latter sustains no comparison whatever with the overchecks, thus Mr Bates mentions the really astounding numbers of wing-hounds which are destroyed during their exodus, the dead or half-dead bodies of the Formica de Fuego, open bracket Miamica C. Visima, close bracket which had been blown into the river during a gale, were heaped in a line and each o2 in height and breathed, the line continued without interaction for miles at the edge of the water, open footnote, the naturalists and the river Amazons, second, 85, 95, close footnote. Myriads of ores are thus destroyed amidst a nature which must support a hundred times as many ores as are actually living. Dr Altum, a German forester who wrote a very interesting book about animals injurious to our forests, also gives many fact showing the immense importance of natural checks. He says that a succession of gales or cold and dead, whether during the exodus of the pine moth, open bracket, bombics, pinis, close bracket, destroy it to incredible amounts, and during the spring of 1871, all these moths disappear at once, probable killed by a succession of cold knights. Open footnote, Dr B. Altum, world best-chadding Guggen, dirtier et on gigameter, open bracket, Berlin 1889, close bracket, pages 207, sequence, close footnote. Many lack examples relative to various insects could be quoted from various spots of Europe. Dr Altum also mentions the bird and meese of the pine moth and the immense amount of its eggs destroyed by foxes, but he adds that the parasitic fungi which periodically infest it are a far more terrible enemy than any bird, because they destroy the moth over very large areas at once. As to various species of mice, open bracket, moose, sylvaticus, ovicula, ovalis, and a agrestis, close bracket, the same author gives a long list of their enemies, but he remarks, however the most terrible enemies of mice are not overanimals, but such sudden changes of weather as occur almost every year. Alternations of frost and warm weather destroy them in numerous quantities. One single sudden change can reduce thousands of mice to the number of a few individuals. On the other side, a warm winter or a winter which gradually steps in, make them multiply in many same proportions, not withstanding every enemy, such was the case in 1876 and 1877, open footnote, Dr B. Altum, Utsupra, pages 13 and 187, close footnote. Competition in the case of mice, thus appears a quite trifling factor when compared with weather. Other facts to the same effect are also given as regards scurals. As to birds, it is well known how they suffer from sudden changes of weather, unless no storms are as destructive of bird life on the English moose as they are in Siberia, and C.H. Tixon, through the red grouse suppressed during some exceptionally severe winters, but they keep the moose in numbers and we have then known them actually to be taken in the streets of Sheffield, but this net wet he adds is almost as fatal to them. On the other side, the contagious diseases which continually visit most annual species destroy them in such numbers that the looses often cannot be repaired for many years, even with the most rapid de multiplying animals. Thus some 60 years ago, the souce licks had only disappeared in the neighborhood of Saraptar, in southeastern Russia, in consequence of some epidemics and for years no souce licks were seen in that neighborhood. It took many years before they became as numerous as they formerly were. Open footnote, A. Becker, in the bulletin de la société des naturalistes de Moscou, 1889, page 625, close footnote, like facts all tending to reduce the importance given to competition could be produced in numbers, of course it might be replied in Darwin's words, but nevertheless each organic being at some period of its life during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for life and to suffer great destruction and that the fittest survive during such periods of hard struggle for life, but if the evolution of the animal world were based exclusively or even chiefly upon the survival of the fittest during periods of calamities, if natural selection were limited in its action to periods of exceptional drought or sudden changes of temperature or inundations, retrogression would be the rule in the animal world. Those who survive a famine or a severe epidemic of cholera or smallpox or diphtheria, such as we see them in un civilized countries, are neither the strongest nor the healthiest nor the most intelligent. No progress could be based on those survivors, the less to us all survivors usually come out of the odial with an impaired health, like the Transmaiocalian horses just mentioned, over arctic crews, over garrison of a fortress which has been compelled to live for a few months on half rations and comes out of its experience with broken health and subsequent issues a quite abnormal mortality. All that natural selection can do in terms of calamities is to spare the individuals and do it with the greatest endurance for privations of all kinds, so it does among the Siberian horses and cattle. They are enduring, they can feed upon the polar bear in case of need, they resist cold and hunger, but no Siberian horse is capable of carrying half the weight which a European horse carries with ease. The Siberian cow gives half the amount of milk given by a Jersey cow, and no natives of un civilized country can bear a comparison with Europeans. They may better endure hunger and cold, but their physical force is very far below that of a well fed European and their intellectual progress is despairing. A wheel cannot be productive of good, as Chinese chef's key wrote in a remarkable essay upon Darwinism, open foot note. Huskaya miss September 1888, the theory of beneficency of struggle for life being a préface to various street teasers and botanics, zoology and human life by an old transformist. Happily enough, competition is not the rule either in the animal world or in mankind. It is limited among animals to exceptional periods and natural selection finds better fields for its activity. Better conditions are created by the elimination of competition by means of mutual aid and mutual support. Open foot note, one of the most frequent modes in which natural selection acts is by adapting some individuals of a species to a somewhat different mode of life whereby they are able to seize un appropriated places in nature. Open bracket, origin of species page 145, close bracket, in other words to avoid competition. Close foot note, in the great struggle for life, for the greatest possible fullness and intensity of life, with the least waste of energy, natural selection continually seeks out the waste precisely for avoiding competition as much as possible. The oaks combine in nests and nations, they pile up their stores, they rear their cattle and thus avoid competition. A natural selection picks out of the oaks family, the species which know best how to avoid competition, with its unavoidably deleterious consequences. Most of our birds slowly move southwards as the winter comes, or gather in numberless societies and undertake long journeys, and thus avoid competition. Many rodents fall asleep when the time comes, but competition should set in, while other rodents store food for the winter and gather in large villages for obtaining the necessary protection when at work. The reindeer when the lichens are dry in the interior of the continent migrate towards the sea, buffaloes cross an immense continent in order to find plenty of food, and the beavers when they grow numerous on their river divide into two parties and go. The old ones down the river and the young ones up the river and avoid competition, and when animals can neither fall asleep, nor migrate, nor lay in stores, nor themselves grow their food like the ants, they do what the tick mouse does, and what Wallace, Unbracket, Darwinism, Chapter 5, Full Bracket, has so charmingly described the resort to new kinds of food, and thus again avoid competition. Don't compete, competition is always injurious to the species, and you have plenty of resources that is the tendency of nature, not always realising full, but always present, that is the watchword which comes to us from the bush, the forest, the river, the ocean, therefore combine practice mutual aid, that is the surest means for giving to each and to all the greatest safety, the best guarantee of existence and progress, but really intellectual and moral, that is what nature teaches best, and that is what all those animals which have attained the highest position in their respective classes have done, that is also what men, the most primitive men has been doing, and that is why men has reached the position upon which we stand now, as we shall see in the subsequent chapters devoted to mutual aid in human societies. End of the second part of chapter 2, recording by Enko, if you would like to send me an email, you can reach me at enkobilal.com, that's E-N-K-O-B-I-L-A-L, at yahoo.com First part of chapter 3 of mutual aid, a factor of evolution, this is a LibriVox recording, all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain, for more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Enko, mutual aid, a factor of evolution, by Peter Kropotkin, first part of chapter 3, mutual aid among savages. The immense part played by mutual aid and mutual support in the evolution of the animal world has been briefly analysed in the preceding chapters, we have now to cast a glance upon the part played by the same agencies in the evolution of mankind. We saw how few other animal species which live an isolated life and how numberless of those which live in societies, either for mutual defence or for hunting and storing up food, or for rearing the offspring, or simply for enjoying life in common. We also saw that though a good deal of warfare goes on between different causes of animals, or different species, or even different tribes of the same species, peace and mutual support are the rule within the tribe of the species, and that both species which best know how to combine and to have a competition have the best chances of survival and the further progressive development they prosper while the unsociable species decay. It is evident that it would be quite contrary to all that we know of nature, if men were an exception to so general a rule, if a creature so defenseless as men was at his beginnings should have found his protection and his way to progress, not in mutual support like other animals, but in a reckless competition for personal advantages with no regard to the interests of the species. To remind accustomed to the idea of unity nature, such a proposition appears utterly indefensible, and yet improbable and unphilosophical as it is, it has never found a lack of supporters. There always were writers who took a pessimistic view of mankind, they knew it more or less superficially through their own limited experience, they knew of history, what the analyst always watched full of wars, cruelty and oppression, toll of it, and little more besides, and they concluded that mankind is nothing but a loose aggregation of beings always ready to fight with each other, and only prevented from so doing by the intervention of some authority. Hobbes took that position, and while some of his 18th century followers et d'avaut de prouver qu'à no epoch of its existence, not even in its most primitive condition, mankind live in a state of perpetual warfare that men have been sociable even in the state of nature, and that want of knowledge rather than the natural bad inclinations of men brought humanity to all the horrors of its early historical life. His idea was on the contrary that the so called state of nature was nothing but a permanent fight between individuals accidentally huddled together by the mere caprice of their bestial existence, true that science has made some progress since Hobbes times, and that we have safer ground to stand upon than the speculation of Hobbes also. But the Hobbesian philosophy has plenty of admirers still, and we have had of late quite a school of writers who taking position of Darwin's terminology rather than of his leading alias made of an argument in favor of Hobbes views upon primitive men and even succeeded in giving them a scientific appearance. Hexley, as he's known, took the lead of that school, and in a paper written in 1888 he represented primitive men as a sort of tigers or lions, deprived of all ethical conceptions, fighting out the struggle for existence to its bitter end, and living a life of continual free fight to code his own words, beyond the limited and temporary relations of the family. The Hobbesian war of each against all was the normal state of existence. Open footnote 19th century, February 1888, page 165, close footnote. It has been remarked more than once that the shift era of Hobbes and the 18th century philosophers as well, was to imagine that mankind began its life in the shape of small, straggling families, something like the limited and temporary families of the bigger carnivores, while in reality it is now positively known that such was not the case. Of course we have no direct evidence as to the moods of life of the first men like beings. We are not yet settled, even as to the time of their first appearance. Geologists being inclined at present to see their traces in the Pliocene, or even the Muocene, deposits of the tertiary period, but we have an indirect method which permits us to throw some might even upon that remote antiquity. A most careful investigation into the social institutions of the lowest races has been carried on during the last 40 years, and it has revealed among the present institutions of primitive folk, some traces of still older institutions which have long disappeared, but nevertheless left unmistakable traces of their previous existence. A whole science devoted to the embryology of human institutions has thus developed in the hands of Bachophene, Maclennan, Morgan, Edwin Tyler, Maine, Post-Kovalewski, Lubbock, et many others, and that science has established beyond any doubt that mankind did not begin its life in the shape of small isolated families. For from being a primitive form of organization, the family is a very late product of human evolution. As far as we can go back in the paleo ethnology of mankind, we find men living in societies in tribes similar to those of the highest farmers, and an extremely slow and long evolution was required to bring these societies to the gentile Auckland organization, which in its turn had to undergo another also very long evolution. Before the first jumps of family, polygames or monogames could appear. Societies, bands or tribes, but families were thus the primitive form of organization of mankind and its earliest ancestors. That is what ethnology has come to after its painstaking researchers, et in so doing, it simply came to what might have been foreseen by the zoologists. None of the higher farmers saved a few carnivores, and if you adopted the decaying species of apes, open brackets, orangutans and gorillas, close brackets, living small families, isolated, struggling in the woods, all others living societies, and Darwin so well understood that isolated living apes never could have developed into men like beings, that he was inclined to consider men as descended from some comparatively weak but social species, like the chimpanzee rather than from some stronger but un sociable species like the gorilla, open foot nerd. The descent of men end of chapter 2, pages 63 and 64 of the second edition, close foot nerd. Zoology and paleo-ethnology, others agreed in considering that the Ben, not the family was the earliest form of social life. The first human societies simply were a further development of those societies, which constitute the very essence of life of the higher animals, open foot nerd anthropologiques, who fully endorse the above views as regards men nevertheless intimate, sometimes that the apes live in polygamous families under the leadership of a strong and jealous male. I do not know how far that assertion is based upon conclusive observation. But the passage from Bram's life of animals, which he sometimes referred to, can hardly be taken as very conclusive. It occurs in his general description of monkeys, but his more detailed descriptions of separate species are either contradict it or do not confirm it. Even as regards the socopy text, Bram is affirmative in saying that they nearly always live in bands and very seldom in families. Open bracket, French edition, page 59, close bracket. As to other species, the very numbers of their bands, always containing many males, render the polygamous family more than doubtful further observation is evidently wanted. Close foot nerd. If we now go over to positive evidence, we see that the earliest traces of men dating from the glacial or the early post-glacial period are for unmistakable proofs of men having lived even then in societies. Isolated fights of stone implements even from the old stone age are very rare. On the contrary, wherever one flit implement is discovered, others are sure to be found in most cases in very low quantities. At a time when men were deling in caves or under occasionally protruding rocks, in company with members now extinct and hardly succeeded in making the roughest sorts of flit hatchets, they already knew the advantages of life in societies. In the valleys of the tributaries of the door-dying, the surface of the rocks is in some places entirely covered with caves, which were inhabited by paleolithic men. Open foot nerd, Luboc prehistoric times, fifth edition, 1890, close foot nerd. Sometimes the cave dwellings are superposed in stories and they certainly recall much more than nesting colonies of swallows than the dance of carnivores, as to the flit implements discovered in those caves to use Luboc's words. One may say with that exaggeration that they are numberless. The same is true of the paleolithic stations. It also appears from law-tests investigations that the inhabitants of the Orinac region in the south of France partook of tribal myths at the burial of their dead, so that men live in societies and had jumps of a tribal worship, even at that extremely remote epoch. The same is still better proved as regards the later part of the Stone Age. Suisses of Neolithic men have been found in numberless quantities, so that we can reconstitute his manner of life to a great extent. When the ice cap open bracket, which must have spread from the polar regions as far south as Middle France, Middle Germany and Middle Russia, and covered Canada as well as a good deal of what is now the United States, close bracket began to melt away. The surfaces freed from ice were covered first with swamps and marshes, and later on with numberless leaks. That extension of the ice cap is admitted by most of the geologists who have specially studied the glacial age. The Russian Geological Survey already has taken this as regards to Russia, and most Germans specialists maintain it as regards Germany. The glaciation of most of the central part of France will not fail to be recognized by the French geologists when they pay more attention to the glacial deposits altogether, lakes filled all depressions of the valleys before their waters, the guard was permanent channels which during a subsequent epoch became our rivers, and wherever we explore in Europe, Asia ou America, the shores of the literally numberless lakes of that period, whose proper name would be the Lacustine period, we found traces of Neolithic men, they are so numerous that we can only wonder at the relative density of population at that time. The stations of Neolithic men closely follow each other and the terraces which now mark the shores of the all lakes, and at each of those stations turn implements appear in such numbers that no doubt is possible as to the length of time during which they were inhabited by rather numerous tribes. All workshops of fleet implements testifying other numbers of workers who used to come together have been discovered by the archaeologists. Traces of a more advanced period already characterized by the use of some pottery or found in the shell heaps of Denmark, they appear as is well known in the shape of heaps from 5 to 10 feet thick from 100 to 200 feet wide and 1000 feet or more in length, and they are so common along some parts of the sea coast that for a long time they were considered as natural growths and yet they contain nothing but what has been in some way or other subservient to the use of men, and they are so densely stuffed with products of human industry that during a 2 days stay at mille gaud, Lubock dug out no less than 191 pieces of stone implements and 4 fragments of pottery, open footnotes, perhistoric times pages 232 and 242 close footnotes. The very size and extension of the shell heaps proved that for generations and generations the coast of Denmark were inhabited by hundreds of small tribes which certainly lived as peacefully together as were few again tribes which also accumulate like shell heaps or living in our own times. As to the lake dwellings of Syduzelen which represent a still further advance in civilization, they yield still better evidence of life and working societies. It is known that even during the Stone Age, the shores of the Swiss lakes were dotted with a succession of villages each of which consisted of several huts and was built upon a platform supported by numberless pillars in the lake. No less than 24 mostly stone age villages were discovered along the shores of Lake Liman, 32 in the lake of Constance, 46 in the lake of Neuchâtel et so on, and each of them testifies to the immense amount of labor which was spent in common by the tribe, not by the family. It has even been asserted that the life of the lake dwellers must have been remarkably free of warfare and so it probably was especially if we refer to the life of those primitive folk who lived until the present time in similar villages built upon pillars on the sea coast. It is thus seen even from the above rapid hints that our knowledge of primitive men is not so scanty after all and that so far as it goes, it is rather opposed than favorable to the Caucasian speculations. Moreover, it may be supplemented to a great extent by the direct observation of such primitive tribes as now stand on the same level of civilization as the inhabitants of Europe stood in prehistoric times, that these primitive tribes which we find now are not degenerated specimens of mankind who formerly knew a higher civilization as it has occasionally been maintained, has sufficiently been proved by Edwin Tyler and Lubock. However, to the arguments already opposed to the degeneration theory, the following may be added. Save a few tribes clustering in the less accessible highlands, the savages represent a girdle which encircles the more older civilized nations and they occupy the extremities of our continents. Most of which have written still or recently were bearing an early post-glacial character, such as the Eskimos and their congeniers in Greenland, Optic America and Northern Siberia and in the southern hemisphere of the Australians, the Papuas, the Thréguins and broadly the Bushmen. While within the similar areas, like primitive folk are only found in the Himalayas, the highlands of Australasia and the plateaus of Brazil, now it must be borne in mind that the glacial age did not come to an end at once over the whole surface of the Earth. It still continues in Greenland, therefore at the time when the littoral regions of the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean or the Gulf of Mexico already enjoyed a warmer climate and became the seats of higher civilizations, immense territories in Middle Europe, Siberia and Northern America as well as in Patagonia, Southern Africa and Southern Australia remained in early post-glacial conditions which rendered them inaccessible to the civilized nations of the Turin and Sub-Turid zones. They were at that time one of the terrible amounts of northwestern Bahia or now and their population inaccessible to an untouched by civilization retained the characters of early post-glacial men. Later on, when the Cication rendered these territories more accessible for agriculture, they were people with more civilized immigrants and while part of their previous inhabitants were assimilated by the new settlers another part migrated further and settled where we found them. The territories they inhabit now are still recently sub-glacial as to their physical features, their arts and implements of those of the Neolithic Age and notwithstanding their racial differences and the distances which separate them, their modes of life and social institutions bear a striking likeness so we cannot but consider them as fragments of the early post-glacial population of the now civilized area. The first thing which strikes us as soon as we begin studying primitive work is the complexity of the organization of marriage relations under which they are living. With most of them the family in the sense we attribute to it is hardly found in its gems. But they are by no means loose aggregations of men and women coming in a disorderly manner together in conformity with their momentary capricious. All of them are under a certain organization which has been described by Morgan in its general aspects as the Gentile Oakland Organization Open Footnote. Butchuffin Das Muteereck got 1861. Levis H. Morgan ancient society owe all researchers in the lines of human progress from Sabél Jury football barisum to civilization New York 1877 G. F. McLennan studies in ancient history first series new edition 1886 second series 1896 Elfison and A. W. Hobbit Camillara and Kunai Melboun these four writers as has been very truly remarked by Jiro Telon. Starting from different facts and different general ideas and following different methods have come to the same conclusion. To Batchofen we have a notion of the maternal family and the maternal succession. To Morgan the system of kinship Malayan and Turanian and a highly gifted sketch of the main phases of human evolution. To McLennan the law of exogeny and to Fison and Hobbit the quadro oak scheme of the conjugal societies in Australia all for and in establishing the same fact of the tribal origin of the family. When Batchofen first drew attention to the maternal family in his epochmaking work and Morgan described the clan organization both concurring to the almost general extension of these forms and maintaining that the marriage laws lie at the very basis of the consecutive steps of human evolution. They were accused of exaggeration. However, the most careful researchers prosecuted since by a phalanx of students of ancient law have proved that all races of mankind bear traces of having passed through similar stages of development of marriage laws such as we now see enforced among certain savages. See the works of post Dogun Kovalevsky Lubok and their numerous followers Lippert, Mnuk etc. Close footnote To tell the matter as briefly as possible there is little doubt that mankind has passed at its beginning through a stage which may be described as that of communal marriage that is the whole tribe had husbands and wives in common with but little regard to consanguinity but it is also certain that some restrictions to that free intercourse were imposed at a very early period. Intermarriage was soon prohibited between the sons of one mother and her sisters grand-daughters and aunts. Later on it was prohibited between the sons and daughters of the same mother and further limitations did not fail to follow. The idea of a gents or clan which embodied or presumed descendants from one stock open bracket or rather all those who gathered in one group cause bracket was evolved and marriage within the clan was entirely prohibited. It still remain communal but the wife or the husband had to be taken from under the clan and when the gents became too numerous and subdivided into several gents each of them was divided into closers open bracket usually for close bracket and marriage was permitted only between certain well-defined closers that is the stage which we find now among the Kamilawa speaking Australians as to the family its first germs appeared amidst the clan organization a woman who was captured in war from some over clan and who formally would have belonged to the whole gents could be kept at a later period by the capturer under certain obligations towards the tribe she may be taken by him to a separate hut after she had paid a certain tribute to the clan and thus constitute within the gents a separate family the appearance of which evidently was opening a quite new phase of civilization now if we take into consideration that this complicated organization developed among men who stood at the lowest known degree of development and that it maintained itself in societies knowing no kind of authority besides the authority of public opinion we at once see how deeply enrouted social instincts must have been in human nature even at its lower stages a savage who is capable of living under such an organization and of freely submitting to rules which continually clash with his personal desires certainly is not a beast devoid of ethical principles and knowing nowhere to its patience but the facts become still more striking if we consider the immense antiquity of the clan organization it is now known that the primitive cemites the Greeks of Homer and the prehistoric Romans the Germans of Tacitus the early cells and the early Slavonians all have had their own period of clan organization closely analogous to that of the Australians the red Indians the Eskimos and other inhabitants of the savage girdle open foot node for the cemites and the Orians see especially professor Maxime Kovalevsky primitive law open bracket in russian close bracket muscule 1886 and 1887 also his lectures delivered at stokholm open bracket table des origines et de l'évolution de la famille et de la propriété stokholm 1890 close bracket which represents an admirable review of the whole question cf also a post die guess let's genocent staff d'air ou c'est oudenbourg 1875 close foot node so we must admit that either the evolution of marriage laws went on on the same lines among all female races over rudiments of the clan rules were developed among some common ancestors of the cemites the Orians the Polynesians etc before the differentiation into separate races place and that these rules were maintained until now among races long ago separated from the common stock both alternatives imply however and equally striking necessity of the institution such a tenacity that no assaults of the individual could break it down through the scores of thousands of years that it was in existence the very persistence of the clan organization shows how utterly force it is to reduce that primitive mankind as a disorderly agglomeration of individuals who only obey their individual passions and take advantage of their personal force and cunningness against all over representatives of the species un bridal individualism is a modern growth but it is not characteristic of primitive mankind but it would not it would be impossible to enter here into a discussion of the origin of the marvellous restrictions let me a new remark that a division into groups similar to Morgan's Hawaiian exists among birds the young birds live together separately from their parents a like division might probably be traced among some mammals as well as to the prohibition of relations between brothers and sisters it is more likely to have a reason not from speculation about the bad effects of consanguinity which speculations really do not seem probable but to avoid the too easy precocity of black marriages and a close cohabitation it must have become of imperious necessity I must also remark that in discussing the origin of new customs altogether we must keep in mind that the savages like us have their fingers and savance with thoughts doctors, prophets etc whose knowledge and ideas are in advance upon those of the masses united as we are in their secret units open bracket and the almost universal feature close bracket they are certainly capable of exercising a powerful influence and of enforcing customs where utility of which may not yet be recognized by the majority of the tribe close footmen going now over to the existing savages we may begin with a bushman who stands at a very low level of development so low indeed that they have no dwellings and sleeping holes dug in the soil occasionally protected by some screens it is known that when europeans settled in the territory and destroyed deer the bushman began stealing the settlers cattle where upon a war of extermination too horrible to be related here was wage against them 500 bushmen were slaughtered in 1774 3000 in 1889 by the former's alliance and so on they were person like rats killed by hunters lying in ambush before the caucus of some animal killed wherever met with open footnote colonel Collins in philippe's researchers in south africa london 1828 quoted by witz second 334 close footnote so that our knowledge of the bushman being chiefly borrowed from those same people who exterminated them is necessarily limited but still we know that when the europeans came the bushman lived in small tribes open bracket war clans close bracket sometimes federated together that they used to hunt in common and divided the spoil without carrelling that they never abandoned their wounded and displayed strong affection to their comrades listenstein has a most touching story about a bushman nearly drowned in a river who was rescued by his companions they took off their thirst to cover him and shivered themselves they dry him rub him before the fire and smeared his body with warm grease till they brought him back to life and when the bushmen found in johan van der wort a men who treated them well they express their thankfulness by a most touching attachment to that man open footnote lichtenstein's risen him sud lichen africa second pages 92 97 birding 1811 close footnote bouchel and muffin both represent them as good-hearted disinterested true to their promises and grateful open footnote witz anthropologie deal nature valker second pages 335 sequence c'est aussi friche die and gay born africains preslo 1872 pages 386 sequence andrey jarre in sud africa or sw blake a brief account of bushmen for claw kept down 1875 close footnote all qualities which could develop only by being practiced within the tribe as to their love to children it is sufficient to say that when a european wished to secure a bushman woman as a slave he stole her child her mother was sure to come into slavery to share the fate of the child open footnote elizé reclue géographie universelle 13th 475 close footnote the same social manners characterize the hoodenters who are but a little more developed than the bushmen the book describes them as a filthy ass animals and filthy very really old a fur suspended to their neck and won't till it falls to pieces is all they address their hut or a few sticks assembled together and covered with mats with no kind of furniture within and though they kept oxen and sheep and seem to have known the use of iron before they made aquintents with the europeans they still occupy one of the lowest degrees of the human scale and yet those who knew them highly praised their sociability and readiness to aid each other if anything is given to a hoodenter he at once divides it among all present a habit which as is known so much struck Darwin among the few agents he cannot eat alone and however hungry he cause those who pass by to share his food and when Colben express his astonishment there at he receive the answer that is hoodenter manor but this is not hoodenter manor only it is an old but universal habit among the savages Colben who knew the hoodenters well and did not pass by their defects in silence could not praise their tribal morality highly enough their word is sacred hero they knew nothing of the scarabness and faithless odds of Europe they live in great tranquility and or seldom at work with their neighbors they are all kindness and goodwill to one another one of the greatest pleasures of the hoodenters certainly lies in their gifts and good officers to one another the integrity of the hoodenters their strictness and solidarity in the exercise of justice and their chastity or things in which they excel all or most nations in the world but put no peak Colben represents state of the cape of good hope translated from the German by Mr. Medley London, 1731 of volume 1 pages 59, 71, 333 336 etc close footnote Tasha, Baru et Modi open footnote quoted in Whitt's Anthropologie second 335 sequence close footnote fully confirmed Colben's testimony let me only remark that when Colben wrote Batwe or certainly the most friendly the most liberal and the most benevolent people to one another that ever appeared on the earth open bracket first, 332 close bracket he wrote a sentence which has continually appeared since in the description of savages when first meeting with primitive races the Europeans usually make a caricature of their life but when an intelligent man has stayed among them for a longer time he generally describes them as the kindest or the gentlest race on the earth these very same words have been applied to the Osteaks the Samoyeds the Eskimos the Dayaks the Aleuts the Papuas and so on by the highest authorities I also remember having read them applied to the Tungus the Chukchis the Sioux and several others the very frequency of that high commandation already speaks volumes in itself the natives of Australia do not stand on a higher level of development than their South African brothers they are huts or of the same character very often simple screens of the only protection against whole winds in their food they are most indifferent they devour horribly petrified corpses and cannibalism is resorted to in terms of scarcity when first discovered by Europeans they had no implements but in stone or bone and these were of the roughest description some tribes had even no canwes and did not know border trade and yet when their manners and customs were carefully studied they proved to be living under that elaborate clan organizations which I have mentioned on a priesting page point footnote the natives living in the north of Sydney and speaking the Camillaro language or best known under this aspect through the capital work of L'Oriméa Fison and Ewi Howit Camillaro and Kunai Melbourne 1880 see also Ewi Howit's further note on the Australian clan systems in journal of the Anthropological Institute 1889 volume 18 page 31 showing the wide extension of the same organization in Australia close footnote the territory they inhabit is usually allotted between the different gens or clans but the hunting and fishing territories of each clan are kept in common and the produce of fishing and hunting belongs to the whole clan so also the fishing and hunting implements open footnote the folklore manners etc of Australian aborigines Adelaide 1879 page 11 close footnote the mills are taken in common like many of the savages they respect certain regulations as to the seasons when certain gums and grosses may be collected open footnote graze journals of two expeditions of discovery in northwest and western Australia London 1841 volume 2 pages 237 298 close footnote as to their morality altogether we cannot do better than transcribe the following answers given to the questions of the Paris Anthropological Society by loomholes a missionary who such worn in north kinsland open footnote bulletin de la Société d'anthropologie 1888 volume 11 page 652 adabrage of the answers close footnote the feeling of friendship is known among them these strong weak people are usually supported sick people are very well attended to they never are abandoned or killed these tribes are cannibals but they very seldom eat members of their own tribe open bracket when emulated and religious principles i suppose cause bracket they eat strangers only the parents love their children play with them and pet them infanticide meets with common approval old people are very well treated never put to death no religion no idols only a fear of death polygamous marriage quarrels arising within the tribe were settled by means of dual sport with wooden swords and shields no slaves no culture of any kind no portrait no dress safe and apron sometimes worn by women the can consists of 200 individuals divided into four classes of men and four of women marriage being only permitted within the usual classes and never within the gents for the Papuas closely akin to the above we have the testimony of GL being fusted in New Guinea chiefly in Jill Wing Bay from 1871 to 1883 here is the essence of his answers to the same question open footnote bulletin de la société d'anthropologie 1888 volume 11 page 386 close footnote they are sociable and cheerful they love very much rather timid than courageous friendship is relatively strong among persons belonging to different tribes and still stronger within the tribe a friend will often pay the depth of his friend the stipulation being that the latter would repay it without interest to the children of the land they take care of the ill and the old all people are never abandoned and in no case are they killed unless it be a slave who was ill for a long time war prisoners are sometimes eaten the children are very much better and loved old and feeble war prisoners are killed the others are sold as slaves they have no religion no gods, no idols no authority of any description the oldest man in the family is the judge in cases of adultery a fine is paid and part of it goes to the negoria open bracket the community whose bracket the soil is kept in command but the crop belongs to those who have grown it they have poetry and no border trade the custom being that the merchant gives them the goods whereupon they return to their houses and bring their native goods required by the merchant if the latter cannot be obtained the european goods are returned with footnot the same is the practice with the papuas of Caimanibe who have a high reputation of honesty it never happens that the papua be untrue to his promise finch says in neginia un sener béonair preman 1865 page 829 close footnot they are headhunters and in so doing they prosecute blood revenge sometimes finch says the affaire is referred to the rajah of namotat who terminates it by imposing a fine when well treated the papuas of arigain miklouko marclé dendon on the eastern coast of new vignée followed by one single man stayed for two years among tribes reported to be cannibals and left them with regret he returned again to stay one year more among them and never had he any conflict to complain of true that his rule was never under no pretext whatever to say anything which was not truth nor make any promise which he could not keep these poor creatures who even do not know how to obtain fire and carefully maintain it in their hearts live under their primitive communism without any chiefs and within their villages they have no quarrels worth spaking over they work in common just enough to get the food of the day they rear their children in common and in the evenings they dress themselves as coquettishly as they can and dance like all savages they are fond of dancing each village has its balla or balai the long house long maison or grand maison for the un married man for social gatherings et for the discussion of common affairs again a trait which is common to most inhabitants of the pacific islands the eskimos, the red indians and so on whole groups of villages or unfriendly towns and visit each other on block unhappily felt or not uncommon not inconsequential overstocking of the area or keen competition and like inventions of the mercantile century but chiefly inconsequential superstition as soon as anyone falls ill his friends and relatives come together and deliberately discuss who might be the cause of the illness all possible enemies are considered everyone confesses of his own petty quarrels and finally the real cause is discovered an enemy from the next village has called it down an arrayed upon that village is decided upon therefore felt or rather frequent even between the cause villages not to say a word of the cannibal mountaineers who are considered as real witches and enemies the unecloser akin tense they prove to be exactly the same sort of people as their neighbors on the seaco's open footnote is bestia of the russian geographical society 1880 pages 161 sequence few books of travel give a better insight into the petty details of the daily life of savages than these scraps from marquess notebooks closed footnote end of the first part of chapter 3 recording by enku if you would like to send me an email you can reach me at enkubilal at yahoo.com www.enkubilal.com