 So I want to say just a little bit more about lateral gene transfer. The first really important indicators that it happened came from looking at the exchange of genes going from bacteria that became resistant to antibiotics into new strains of bacteria. And those are transmitted by plasmids, which are little spheres within cells that can contain DNA material. It also turns out that viruses can also transfer genetic material between organisms. So we often think of it as happening within bacteria, for example, with that antibacterial resistance. But I found this really interesting tree, again, sort of with a common ancestor at the bottom here and the branch points, that was looking at how plants were able to colonize land. And this paper looked at all of the different genes that were critical to being able to grow roots on land, and it looked at the individual relatedness of those genes in different organisms. So it's like making a phylogenetic tree, except for instead of using the whole organism, it's just based on the genes. And each one of these arrows represents a gene that they identified, where it came from, in this case a bacteria, and the relative timing of one that was transferred into an ancestor of the land plants. So this first one included the ability to make plastids and ferment alcohol. The first two here, and then the red algae diverged from the ancestors of the green algae mosses and land plants, and the green algae diverged, and then there were a series of transfers, one from fungi and two from bacteria that allowed the ancestors of land plants to develop their vascular structure and a bunch of other things, including lateral root formation, the patterns on the leaves. And so these genes didn't actually create the vascular development, because fungi and bacteria don't have those same properties, but those genes were transferred into the ancestors of land plants, and they gained these new functions, and the genes continued to evolve with mutations, and as they increased the function for the organism they were selected for in the populations. And then further up, within the land plants, there were more gene transfers from the fungi, and one from the archaea, and one from the bacteria that influenced gene DNA replication and repair, and resistance to pathogens. And so if you think back to our interactions among organisms, this pathogen resistance is one of those things to try to limit the parasitism or disease of the negative impacts of interactions between those organisms. So this is just one example of how lateral gene transfer from one type of organism to another type changes the function of the recipient organism, and this paper argues that we couldn't actually have land plants without the contributions of genes from the fungi, archaea, and bacteria. So these examples of lateral gene transfer show that how much life is interconnected with each other, and while most genes are inherited through cell division and through sort of a lineal descent from the parent to the offspring cells, the transferred genes among different organisms has been really critical in the evolution of life on Earth. Thanks for watching.