 Ancient Rome is one of the most famous civilisations in recorded history. First a republic, then an empire. The power of Rome stretched from western Europe to northern Africa. Despite Rome's power and prestige however, there is one region of the world that Rome could never conquer. The northern part of what we today call Scotland. To the Romans, this region was known as Caledonia. This was probably an oversimplification on the part of Roman writers and generals however, as what the Romans called Caledonia was a complex system of different tribes and groups. Unfortunately, we don't know what these people called themselves. Why did the mighty Roman Empire fail to conquer these people however? Well, initially, the Romans had some success. After sending a survey fleet in 79 AD, the most notable incident in the initial period of the Roman campaign in Caledonia took place in 83 AD at the Battle of Mons Grupeus, with this mountain range known as the Grampian Mountains today. We know that the Caledonians raised an army of around 30,000 men to confront a highly trained Roman force of approximately half the size. Despite their inferior numbers, the well-trained Roman legions won a decisive victory, with around 10,000 Caledonians thought to have died on this bloody occasion. After victory, the Romans briefly built upon their position by strengthening a series of forts and watchtowers along the Gask Ridge. This was a set of Roman defences that cut through Caledonia, starting as far down as Camlin and stretching diagonally up to Cargill, which is just north of Perth. Roman attention soon turned to another part of the Empire, further east however. In 85 and 86 AD, the Romans suffered defeats against Dacian forces in Transylvania, which is a modern-day Romania. With some Roman troops relocated to the east and under increasing pressure from local forces, the Romans dropped back south to the modern-day Scottish-English border. And herein lies one of the major reasons why Rome failed to fully conquer and hold ancient Scotland, the ferocity of the native people. Rome had to drop back to the Scottish-English border because they were under constant pressure when in Caledonia. The Caledonians are documented to be fierce and brave fighters. The Roman statesman, Daio, described the Caledonians as dowty fighters who were fearsome and dangerous men. Additionally, the Caledonians learned a lesson from the Battle of Mons Gropius that fighting the Romans in a traditional battle was futile. Their strategy shifted, with them engaging more in guerrilla warfare tactics against the occupying Roman force, which proved successful over the coming centuries. In conjunction to the ferocity, the Caledonians may also have proved far too unruly to accept living under the Roman yoke. The ancient inhabitants of northern Scotland would have had their own customs, traditions, basic legal structure, methods of trade, barter, and may even have had their own currency. After all, the Caledonians had managed to raise an army of 30,000 men, which would have required some level of organisation and societal cohesion. Although some Caledonians probably succumbed to the Romans relatively easily, many did not, as rebellion against the occupying Roman force was a common theme for centuries. It is quite clear that the Caledonians posed fierce resistance to Roman rule. This is exemplified by the fact that the Romans built two walls 100 miles apart to separate themselves from the fierce Northern tribes of Caledonia. Firstly, in 122 AD, the Emperor Hadrian instructed his troops to construct a wall that would separate Caledonia from Roman Britannia. This wall is located in the very north of modern-day England, just south of the Scottish border. A few decades later, in 140 AD, the Romans built a second wall further north to once again protect against Caledonian attacks. Antonin's wall was built between the River Clyde and the River Forth, and frequently came under attack. Even though Antonin's wall is further north, it still indicates that the Romans never had a major foothold in a large part of Caledonia, as the wall was relatively central in relation to the landmass of ancient Scotland. The likelihood is that the Romans never managed to have any significant presence that far north in Caledonia. Furthermore, the Romans had to retreat from Antonin's wall only a few years after it was constructed. Under pressure from the native forces, the Romans were forced to abandon Antonin's wall in around 165 AD. The Romans threw their weapons down wells and buried them in pits, and part of the wall was buried itself. Perhaps to outstop these tools and barriers being used by the Caledonians. The Romans retreated to Hadrian's wall, around 100 miles south. Then, in the 3rd century AD, there was a notable Roman push north and subsequent genocide under Emperor Septimius Severus and his sons. In 207 AD, Severus received a letter from the Roman governor in Britannia, Sinesio, that the northern tribes of Caledonia were revolting, and that Rome was at risk of losing its foothold entirely. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, the natives had proved quite effective at fighting the Romans. In the following year, Severus arrived with 50,000 men and 7,000 sailors, the largest Roman force ever to touch down on the British Isles. In 209 and 210 AD, the Emperor led a forced north of Hadrian's wall to fight two alliances that had formed amongst the native groups a few decades prior. The first alliance consisted of the Caledonians to the north, with the second known as the Matei, who were based around Fife and on either side of Antony's wall. With 50,000 land troops, however, Severus' massive Roman force ripped through the land, eventually forcing the natives to agree a peace treaty. The peace was short-lived, however. Shortly after the First Rebellion, the people of ancient Scotland revolted again. Severus, who was stationed at York, ordered his men to commit genocide in response. The Emperor sent his sons north, with troops under the order of killing everyone, even the unborn in the womb. The resulting slaughter is thought to have decimated the lowland population for a century. In 211 AD, Severus died, and his sons headed straight back to Rome. After the death of Severus, the Romans dropped back to Hadrian's wall once again. In the subsequent decades, the Romans launched numerous campaigns into modern-day Scotland, but never managed to conquer and hold vast lands north of Hadrian's wall. It is also in the 3rd century AD that we see the first reference to the picks in the historical record. In 297 AD, a Roman writer spoke of the picks in Irish, meaning Scots, attacking Hadrian's wall. It is thought that the picks are the descendants of the Caledonians. However, as the picked high, meaning painted people, was also a name that the Romans gave to the northern people of modern-day Scotland. The Caledonians and the picks may have essentially been the same people. Unfortunately, we don't know what these people called themselves. Rome's failed attempt to conquer all of modern-day Scotland came to a conclusive end in 410 AD. The reality is that Rome never managed to conquer Caledonia due to a fusion of various factors. If the Caledonians weren't so fierce and proud of their way of life, the weather wasn't so bad. The geography wasn't so hilly, the potential riches from conquest not so little. And if Rome wasn't engaged in other conflicts and numerous other corners of the empire, then Rome potentially could have conquered Caledonia, or at least progressed further into Caledonian territory. Yet, as it stands, they didn't. Which leaves me to simply say that the Roman Empire, despite its power, wealth and fame, never conquered the people of ancient Scotland.