 We're coming to our presentation today with Dr. Barnes. Dr. Barnes is the chairman of the Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice at the University of Incarnate Word, where he teaches a course on social history of holocaust and has visited numerous holocaust sites in Poland and Germany and will soon be visiting the holocaust site in Latvia and Lithuania. And I'd also like to thank the holocaust museum, learn and remember programming committee for the library as well as the library foundation for their support this presentation tonight. So without further ado, Dr. Barnes. Thank you. Welcome. Thank you. Welcome to all of you. It's nice to see everybody here. I especially want to extend a greeting to my good colleague on the back row, Dr. Gilberto Hinajosa, professor emeritus of history at Incarnate Thanks, Gilberto, for coming. The theme for this year is learn and remember, is resistance. And so I thought it might be a good time to make a presentation on the largest, and obviously the most important of the revolts, the uprisings, and that's what happened in Warsaw. So this is on the uprising. Before I get started, I just want to say hi to my good buddy, Howie Nestel. Howie is one of the co-sponsors of learn and remember. That's a pleasure to have you here. So first we locate Warsaw. Warsaw is kind of in the north central part of Poland, right here. It's just straight north of Radom, a little bit northwest of Lublin. And Krakow is down here. This is the map of Poland as it looks in 1933. This map has changed. The boundaries of Poland today are different than what they were then. Warsaw was indeed the major center in Poland of Jewish life and Jewish culture. Its population of about 350,000 Jews. So about 30% of Warsaw's overall total population. Today, sadly, there are very few Jewish residents in Warsaw. Indeed, Poland itself. As you know, war began on September 1, 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Nazi forces. And by four weeks' time, the German army was in Warsaw. They entered Warsaw on the 29th of September. Immediately put into operation a youth and rat by Jewish council under the leadership of an engineer named Adam Schoeneikoff. And within about two months, it was dictated that the Jews must wear white armbands with a blue star data. Jewish schools were closed, property confiscated. Jewish men put into forced labor. There's a picture of Schoeneikoff. If you look closely, you see that there's an SS officer in the back. Warsaw ghetto was established after about one year of Nazi occupation in Warsaw. It was established in October of 1940. All Jews residing in Warsaw and adjacent areas were forced into the ghetto. So the ghetto population swelled to about 450,000 people and all. The ghetto was surrounded by a 10-foot tall wall with barbed wire on the top of it. It was a very, very crowded, 1.3 square miles total for these hundreds of thousands of people. And that meant that on average, an apartment might have seven, eight, maybe as many as 10, people crammed into one room. Chloric intake was absolutely pathetic. It was horror. Starvation, disease, death on the streets was a common thing, unfortunately. By mid-1942, roughly about 83,000 people in the ghetto had already died because of starvation. This is a map of the ghetto. And if you allow me for just a second here, I want to kind of just alert you to a couple of things here. First of all, you'll notice that the ghetto was separated into what was referred to as the larger ghetto and the smaller ghetto. And the two were connected by a footbridge on Chodna Street, which enabled then the inhabitants of the ghetto to move from one side to the other as they needed to by going over the footbridge. But with a terrible sense of irony, it also allowed non-Jewish Poles to pass through on Chodna Street and to look into the faces, look into the homes of Jews who were crammed into the ghetto. The Umschod Plaza is up here at the very top. That's the assembly point adjacent to the railroad, from which the trains would leave to Treblinka, one of the six extermination camps in Poland. Very importantly, almost all of Warsaw's Jews when shipped to extermination camp were shipped to Treblinka. I have students that ask me, why were all six of the extermination camps in Poland and not in Germany? But Germany had thousands of concentration camps, war camps, and the like. But the answer is that a Jew in Germany had a better chance of surviving the war, surviving the Holocaust than did a Jew in Poland. At the outbreak of the war, about 3.3 million Jews resided in Poland total by the time the war was over with, that population was down to 300,000. In other words, 3 million of the 3.3 million Polish Jews were killed. The answer is why the extermination camps, Auschwitz, Treblinka, Kiel, Nostlvogor, why they were located in Poland is that's where the bulk of Eastern European Jew relived in Poland. So you put the ghetto adjacent to the trains, trains go into the extermination camps. This is a street called Miele Street. One of the resistance organizations had a bunker on Miele Street. We'll come back to that in a little bit. The great synagogue is actually located right here, just outside of the wall proper. Down in this corner of the small ghetto was an orphanage for over 200 children that was run by Janusz Korsak, an educator, pediatrician, writer of fiction, humanitarian. This is where the Ringelblum archives were actually hidden. More on that in just a little bit, too. And Pabiat Prison, which was the head of the Gestapo, was housed right there. So that's the lay of the 1.3 square months of the Warsaw Ghetto. Here's a picture of the ghetto walls. It's taken from inside the ghetto looking out. So all the buses and trailers are in the non-ghetto part. And here's a picture of the bridge over Shladow Street where workers would often have to pass from their apartments or their homes to wherever it was that they were working. Some fair amount of people were employed, at least early on in 1941, in the ghetto. And they were employed doing different kinds of things. I'll show you a picture of that in just a second. This bridge became somewhat important. This is a picture of Janusz Korsak. Quick story about Korsak. He was a brilliant man, and a very kind pediatrician, and writer and filmmaker. And when German soldiers came from Korsak's children, about 195 of them, when they finally got there, they were going to take the children. And legend has it that one of the SS officers made an offer to Korsak that he could smoke him away. He would smoke Korsak away. And Korsak said, no, I'm going with my children. I will not abandon my children. And so he dressed the children up along with his staff, his nurses, and dressed the children up in very nice clothes, gave them toys, and this caravan took off to the train. Korsak and all the children were killed in Treblinka. As time went by in the ghetto, it became apparent that there needed to be some sort of a record of what was going on in the ghetto. And so Emmanuel Ringelblum decided that they would create an archive. And this became known as the Ringelblum Archives. Milk cans and crates were used. And in all, probably about 35,000 pieces of material, diaries, firsthand accounts, just a wide array of material was stuffed into these and other cans and hidden. There are still, the Ringelblum Archives were uncovered in 1946, but not all of them. There is still a set that has never been found. Speculation is that it resides under what is today the Chinese embassy in Warsaw. But so far, it still is in hiding. This is a picture of the great synagogue, really beautiful, beautiful place. Pavia prison, the head of the Gestapo, offices there. Pavia, there's what Pavia looked like on the left earlier today, what remains of Pavia. In 1944, the Germans destroyed the prison entirely, reduced it to rubble. There's only just a little bit of sections of Pavia that exist today. This is a scene from the Umeshak Plaza, the assembly point, where people would be loaded on the trains to Treblinka. I want to show you a set of photographs that I think, in some ways, don't even need any direction. William York was a German soldier ordered to take pictures of ghetto life, and he spent one day in the ghetto and took a lot of photographs, about 160 in all, and what follows are some of these pictures. I don't know, make one commentary here. This is just a market scene in the ghetto. You see a lot of children in this picture. Some of them, like a little girl over on the right, smiling, a little boy smiling at the camera. It is entirely conceivable that every single person in that picture, every man, woman, child, was exterminated at Treblinka if they didn't die, first of all, from starvation, disease, and the like. Here's a scene of some men selling rope, another one. It's kind of interesting about this. This is a man who is selling armbands, only for just a small amount of money. But what's kind of striking about this is that some of the status distinctions that existed in the Jewish community between the haves and the have-nots is evident even here in the ghetto, as you can see the young woman dressed nicely behind the vendor. And it was the case that some people in the ghetto simply lived better than others, unfortunately. But these kinds of scenes were what Willie York stumbled onto in his one day. Disease, death on the streets, starvation, sickness, dysentery, an older gentleman, armband. You see the children looking at her, she's looking at the photographer, some sense of. And here we see a couple of young women. The speculation is that these two women were sisters, death on the streets. As I said, some of the lucky ones were able to work. By that they were able to make just a little bit better in terms of food rations. And at least while they were working and doing something that the Germans considered useful, they were not going to be subject to extermination right then and there. So they got to live a little bit longer. Here's working a boiler factory, a man-making dowels, men and women both, a sewing factory, making things for German soldiers. And then here's a large picture of workers in a textile factory. I'm using an idea of the kind of labor that people in the ghetto were put into. This is big. The Grosjeckion Warsaw 1942 starts in the summer, in July, with the SS communicating to Schernykoff and the Judenrath that the Jewish population was going to be resettled to the east. That was the big groups. They were going to be moved out of the ghetto and moved away from military confrontation. We moved to the east. Schernykoff knew that probably wasn't a kid. He's a community suicide four days after this announcement. And the great action, Grosjeckion, goes from July 23 to September 21. People could be crammed, about 100 people in a cattle car, roughly 5,000 to 6,000 people every day, shipped out to Treblinka. Treblinka was not a concentration camp. It was an extermination camp, which meant that upon arrival, everybody who was there was exterminated or gassed. And in total, during the great action, probably about estimates run around 250,000 or 265,000. But maybe some scholars say maybe as many as 300,000 died in this short period of time. In all, at Treblinka, estimates vary. But the United States Holocaust Museum estimates that at Treblinka, about 835,000 people perished. Of course, that's about 1.1 million at Auschwitz, so you can see that Treblinka has a very high death toll. This is an announcement, a notice that was posted in the ghetto, prominently displayed everywhere. Yes, sir? Have you been to Treblinka? Yes. Is it still here? Huh? It's still here. Well, yes and no. Auschwitz, most certainly, still is physical space, especially at Auschwitz 1. There were three Auschwitzes, 1, 2, 3. And the one that we're most familiar with is actually Birkenau, which is Auschwitz 2. Auschwitz 1 was an old Polish military encampment. And those buildings, the Nazis just took over and just used and then still you go there today. Birkenau got its name from the white birch trees at the back of Birkenau. And those white birch trees still stand today. They look very beautiful in such a horrible place. The last time I was in Auschwitz, I got up under the train station. Maybe you've seen pictures of the famous train station at Birkenau. And at the top of it is a room about this big with windows all the way around. And it looks out. And my first impression was, oh my god, Auschwitz is such an industrial factory. It is so large. You can't see the back wall, the back section. It's just absolutely huge. This gives you an idea. Is the Warsaw ghetto destroyed? Oh, yeah, it's been completely destroyed. And there's remnants of the wall in Warsaw that still stand today. But you've got to know where they are. Go find them. And there's not that much left there. But the entire ghetto was raised during the revolt. And the Treblinka, I should back up and answer your question as regards Treblinka and what's there today. There was a monument. I'll show you a picture of it in a little bit. And there was about 18,000 stones, markers, memorial markers, scattered around the grounds where the crematorium actually once was. At Treblinka today, when the Germans moved out of Treblinka, literally because they had exterminated all the Jews in that particular district. And Treblinka had done its job. So when Treblinka was shut down in 1944, they literally bulldozed the entire place. They destroyed everything at Treblinka. Every building, every post, every barbed wire fence, every watch tower, they didn't really, they had barracks. But not big barracks like at Auschwitz, which was a combination concentration camp and extermination center. So then after they destroyed everything at Treblinka, they brought dirt up from another Treblinka camp, Treblinka 1. And they simply buried the entire area under four feet of dirt. So the archeological excavations that are going on now are digging down and finding what remains of the crematorium and the gas chambers. But you've got to go down four feet and work your excavation from there. Did the people there still remind you of that? Did they what? Did they want to be reminded of it or did they want to forget about it? I'm sorry, I'm still not hearing you. Did the people there in the areas want to be reminded of it or is it just not true? First of all, Treblinka was not in a major population area like Maidaniq. Maidaniq is in Lublin. It's like right in the middle of the city almost. But Treblinka is in a very remote spot far away from villages, towns, and shettles, communities. And so there was nothing around Treblinka. It existed all by itself. So once the Germans moved out of Treblinka and blew up what remained and buried it under dirt, the forest is reclaiming it. And that is true of major sections of Treblinka today. The forest is just plain reclaiming it. This gives you an idea of some of the actions and the numbers of people who were shipped to Treblinka. The shipments began, of course, with the most vulnerable, those who were homeless, those who were destitute, those without any money, no means of escape. People would be brought up by the hundreds or thousands every day, paraded through the streets to the Umashuk plots, to the transfer point at the railroad, and loaded onto the trains to Treblinka. And it's about 50 miles away. So it took an afternoon or a morning to get there. And this is an outline of what Treblinka looked like. We've had to go back and kind of re-figure and reconstruct based on some memories of what the camp actually looked like. Two very important things here. The extermination part of the camp was right here. These are pits where bodies would be buried and burned. Trains would drop people off here. There's an assembly point here and an assembly point here. And this would lead out into the gas chamber. And the Nazis called this the path of heaven. That was in fact the name that they gave to those places that led into the gas chamber. Not just at Treblinka, but at Sobibor, Khyomno, other extermination camps. The path. The big action in Warsaw. About 50 to 55,000 Jews still remain in the ghetto. And it was pretty evident by the fall of 1942 that extermination was in the cars for everybody. Despair began to give way to resistance. Resistance organizations were formed. And there were two main ones. But there weren't a lot that Jews in the ghetto had with respect to firearms. Mostly they had to do with homemade grenades or homemade bombs, what we would think of as Molotov contents. But they had very few small arms. And no real, no machine guns or anything like that. So the resistance was going to be very, very weakly armed. But what became evident, though, during the Warsaw revolt was that these fighters were going to determine the time and the nature of their own death rather than be dragged to the trains and shipped off to Treblinka. And it was, from the very outset, it was pretty clear that this was going to be a doomed revolt in Warsaw. In January of 1943, Henry Kimber, the head of the SS, made a visit to Warsaw and ordered that 8,000 Jews on the 9th of January be sent immediately. And then if the Jews fought back, the residents of the ghetto fought back. Only about 4,500 to 5,000 of that day's shipments of a planned 8,000, in fact, were shipped to Treblinka. And then following the very brief revolt in January, the decision was made by the SS to just suspend deportations until April. And two resistance organizations that took shape in the Warsaw Ghetto. There's the Bowska Organizanka Vova, which translates into Jewish combat organization with the initial ZOB. That organization was comprised of younger-aged people, a lot of students, probably totaled somewhere around 220 fighters in all, no more. And Mordecai and Levitz was the head of the ZOB. The Dziowsky Dzizwak was a Kawi, translates into Jewish military union. It was comprised of a lot of former World War I soldiers, Polish soldiers. And was the larger of the two main resistance organizations, about twice as many people, 400 in that organization, the ZZW. And the head of that was a relatively young man named Paweł Prankl. So those are the two resistance organizations. And this is a picture of Anna Levitz. He dies in the bunker at Mila 18, along with other ZOB fighters in the next month. As you'll see here in a little bit, the Yorovalt and the Warsaw Ghetto lasts a grand total of one month. Starts to finish. And that's a picture of Paweł Prankl. We don't have any photographs of Prankl, so we have to rely on artists' kinds of go-back and draw a picture. So here's the timeline, OK? Jürgen Strupp, the commander of the SS in Warsaw, replaced the previous head, who Hemler had considered to be weak and inefficient. Strupp arrives in Warsaw on 17 April. And the SS enters the ghetto in mass on April 19. They begin a massive burning, a raising of the ghetto. Eventually, they will destroy every building in the ghetto. In one act of defiance on the 19th of April, the Polish national flag and the banner of the ZZW is raised on a building, plainly seen by people in the ghetto and people on the other side of the wall, infuriating to Strupp and to Hemler. But it was up there for four days before the SS finally succeeded in having it come down. That picture, and we don't really have a picture of it, but that image of the two flags flying together is a very powerful one today in the State of Israel. It means a lot to Israeli citizens. However, in 10 days, all the ZZW, the Jewish Military Union, they're all gone. Commanders have all been killed. And what few fighters are left, flee to the forest. And then the SS discovers this bunker at Miele 18. And that's where Anna Levitz and some other ZOP fighters make their final statements. And take cyanide and commit suicide. And then Strupp personally sent the dynamite to blow up the great synagogue. And shortly after that, sends a report to Hemler about the success. And in the report, famous line is, the Warsaw ghetto is no more. That literally was the case. So there are four copies of the Strupp document, four sets. They were used, or this one was used at the Nuremberg trials after the war as evidence for the Nazi atrocities against Jewish residents in the ghetto. And what I'm going to show you now is a set of about 25 or so pictures, strictly out of the Strupp report. These were taken by documentary units that were connected to the SS. And they simply photographed the destruction of the Warsaw ghetto. We start with Strupp himself. That's the general, actually a major general, in the middle, looking upwards. You can see the buildings are already ablaze. Here's Strupp reviewing his troops. And a radio command post that allowed Strupp to communicate to those he needed to communicate to. The resistance fighters were hungered down in bunkers. It might have been as many as 600 bunkers that had been built by the Warsaw ghetto residents. This was a scene of a typical bunker. Here's another, and this one you see, a resistance fighter down even lower, another bunker. So they were hiding out on the bunkers. They were sniping as best they could at German soldiers. Of course, this was doomed to failure. Every resistance fighter knew that. They knew that they weren't going to succeed. But it was symbolically a great deal. Did the Germans take those pictures? Yeah, sure did. This was taken by German documentary teams that just followed right along with Strupp's soldiers. This traipsed right along with them into photographs of the entire raising of the ghetto. And this is what the raising of the ghetto looked like. Building by building, apartment by apartment, brick by brick, every building in the ghetto. The place was a blaze, clearly could be seen by people beyond the wall by Polish citizens. Smoke fire pouring out of windows as just one day after another, routing out to resistance fighters. Sometimes rounding them up and marching them to the Umshog class for shipment to Blinkett other times, just shooting them out of the spot. Here's a picture taken on the other side, the Polish side of the wall, with smoke pouring out of a ghetto building, which is the destruction of the ghetto and of course thousands of people. You can see a set of pictures now of men, fighters, leaking to their death, trying to escape the fires, the smoke, or the simply opting for suicide. And here's a man falling from an upper window. Another picture here, a woman. Many of the resistance fighters were women. Many of them that you're going to see here are some upcoming photos. People who have left to their death on the sidewalk, SS soldiers in the foreground. And then a series of pictures of people who were captured. Of course, this picture. I'm sure some of you will recognize this picture. It's a very famous picture, very iconic picture. We really do not know who the little boy is. Nobody knows who's certain. But that's a pretty powerful image. Resistance fighters, men and women both lined up against a wall to be searched for weapons. So what happens to these folks is one of two things. They're either marched to the trains and shipped off to Treblinka, or they're simply shot. It's an interesting picture. Free women who have been captured. The woman who's kind of cut in half on the far left, she perishes at Treblinka, as is the woman who's in the center. But the woman on our right survived the war. Fighters who have been captured. This, too, is one of the really somewhat famous pictures of the war-solvable. I've got two photographs here that were taken within just seconds of one another. This is one of resistance fighters who surrendered and are being marched. And then this is a little closer up picture. It's not the same one. But we know who the people are in this photograph. They've been identified. And the two women in the front and the little girl and the man over the left shoulder of the center woman were all members of the same family. This picture is a very important picture. These are resistance fighters being pulled out of a bunker, one of the many hundreds of bunkers. And I guess it doesn't mean much emphasis to say, you know, it strikes me, maybe you, too, is this picture of the man and the woman over here? These are SS soldiers in the background. These people have just been pulled out of a bunker. And here is a shot of people being marched to the train station to be deported. And you see the ghettos ablaze, smoke, fire everywhere, coming out of the bunker. Another shot. Now you see the destruction, the physical destruction of the ghetto begins to take a little shape in this photograph. You see the rubble, the bombed-out buildings, the destruction of the woman and a couple of men who were in custody. And another couple of resistance fighters and then another small group. So what you're looking at is what was given to Himmler by Jordan's troop as evidence of what they had done in Warsaw. And the reports are that Henry Kimmler was very satisfied when he saw the evidence of how the ghetto was no more. Fighters who had been killed, these are Ukrainian soldiers who were working with the SS in conjunction with the SS. So they're there. And they're looking at the bodies of the seized resistance fighters. And yes, please. I was wondering, how did they find some of these bunkers? Because with that much destruction, and then some of the buildings were blown up, it looked like they were still able to go into some of those dugouts. How were they able to find some of those hidden bunkers or if people were alive in them? They just went down the street and looked into every building, every nook, every cranny, every hole. And even at that, they didn't find everybody. But it was just a systematic, literally room by room by room. Every building, every bunker, until you just dragged everybody out or almost everybody. I didn't see any dogs, so I just wondered how did they actually find some of it? There were plenty of dogs. Well, yeah, I think we maybe don't have pictures of them, but there were plenty of dogs. Yeah, plenty of dogs. And you fire into the bunkers. You have flame throwers, a sheet down into the bunkers. And so there's ways of chasing the people out. Some of those pictures were staged because they had vicious dogs when they were getting on the trains. Yeah. And I thought, oh, it's got a lot of pictures. By this time, the ghetto had been depopulated or where people still in the buildings while they're. People were still in the buildings. I mean, non-combat. Oh, yeah. Yeah. Yeah, with the population after the big action, the great action, with about 50 to 55,000 people who were in the ghetto, you really only had in total about 600 to 700 armed resistance fires. So only a small percentage of ghetto residents. What was the objective of the resistance? I mean, were they going to stop the loading of people? No. No, they knew they weren't going to stop the loading of people. But literally, the fighters said, we control our own destiny now. We will determine the circumstances, the situation, the timing of our deaths. We're going to put up resistance. And we're going to fight back. They're going to kill us. With our coordination. That was inevitable. Was there coordination between the two groups? There was. There was coordination. And then there were ideological differences between the two groups as well. The Zob faction, the younger faction, many of those fighters had Marxist leanings in the Jewish combat in the military union, rather. That organization, the ZZW, they didn't share the kind of left-leaning outlook that the Zob fighters had. But in the end, there was at least some measure of coordination. And just that they didn't have too much to coordinate with. There just wasn't a whole lot. ZZW maintained some contacts with the Polish underground outside of the ghetto. But even that was very limited and very sketchy. Some other street scenes here. That's what the ghetto looked like. Upstaination. That's cool. Where did the remaining population go? Or why is there any remaining population? Let me just go down through all of this. Where did the remaining population go? Yeah, right. Or why is there any left? Not the end. Not the end. OK, you've seen these. I don't know what our computer is doing here. We caught back up to where we were. Aftermath, bombed-out buildings. And there we go. And with this, that's the dome of the Great synagogue. And that was blown up. And it became the last act of Nazi aggression against the Jews. And strut... Is there anything left of the Jews in here? Is there anything left of the Jews in here? No. I'll show you what sits on the side of the own group of the Great Synagogues in a minute. Oops. Let's go here. This is how Stu defined Wayne. After prolonging the suspense for a moment, I shuttered how Hitler impressed the button. With a thunderous deafening bang and a rabble verse of colors and fiery explosions soared toward the clouds. An unforgettable tribute to our triumph over the Jews. The Warsaw ghetto is no more. And at the war's end, if this shot was taken in the spring of 1945, that's what the ghetto looked like. And of course, Warsaw itself was almost bombed, totally out of existence. Hitler unleashed the German bombardment against Warsaw. And 97% of buildings in Warsaw were destroyed in the latter days of the war. Warsaw has been rebuilt today. And if you go there, you might be struck by what a remarkably modern-looking city it is, although many of the buildings have been rebuilt according to their original architectural designs. So you're looking at buildings that you think were built in the 1800s sometime or the early 1900s and they were all post-war. They're all post-war, but they look like their original buildings. Same thing in Berlin. So here's the total. It's estimated that around 13,000 were killed during the uprising. Half of that number died from smoke inhalation or burned alive. The 50,000, roughly, that remained in the ghetto, they were all shipped to Treblinka or Maidanik. Most of them to Treblinka. And of course, all of them were killed. Although I should say the revolt in Treblinka happens after this, so some of the resistance fighters who survived the battle in Warsaw, when they were sent to Treblinka, they participate in the revolt in Treblinka. And out of that number, about 100, maybe, lived to the end of the war. And there were thousands that participated in the revolt in Treblinka. The ones who actually escaped, about 400 to 500 of them, most of them were routed up and killed by the Germans. So in one of his last letters out of Mila 18, this was an 11th, said, wrote a letter to a friend. And my life's dream has now been realized. Jewish self-defense in the ghetto is now an accomplished fact. I have been witness to the magnificent heroic struggle of the Jewish fighters. And I think that captures, in part, the essence of the revolt, knowing that they were doomed, but knowing that they were going to leave a legacy, very important. This was the largest revolt by Jews during World War II. It was larger than the revolt at Treblinka, larger than the revolt at Sobibor, or the many, many other smaller, isolated revolts across Eastern Europe. Our Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C., has marked this simply by saying, this is one of the most significant occurrences in the history of the Jewish people. And in fact, April 19th, the day for the start of the revolt is a national memorial day in Israel now. And it's very, very famous. The revolt at Treblinka, or excuse me, the revolt in the ghetto was the subject of John Hershey's novel, The Wall, featured in Leon Eurice's novel, Mila 18. And more recently, in Roland Polanski's film, The Penis. So in the years that followed, this is a shot, a picture, that was taken in the summer after the fighting in Europe had stopped, when the E-day had been realized. The man on the far left here is named Sincha Rotem. And that's a picture of him with some other, mostly unidentifiable women. We don't know if they were resistance fighters that had survived, but he certainly was. And I'll come back to Mr. Rotem in just a second. This is a picture of Jürgen Struth, the SS commander. He was tried in a Dachau US military tribunal and was sentenced to death. And then four years later, we did the military, didn't execute him. Then, even though he was under sentence of death, and then the Poles put him on trial in a Polish court and sentenced him to death and hanged him the next year, March of 1952. This is called the Janey Flexion of Warsaw. When Willy Brandt was the chancellor for West Germany in 1970, he made a very important visit to Poland. And he was at Warsaw, and he's gathered at this memorial to the fighters, the resistance fighters. And he goes there, and everybody thought that he would give a talk, share some words of wisdom and insight, and instead he fell to his knees. I didn't say anything. So this becomes a very, the Warsaw Janey Flexion, a very famous picture. And as Brandt observed, and they stood on the edge of Germany's historical abyss, being in the burden of millions of murders, I did what people do, if one war is failed. That is what sits on the site of where the great synagogue was in that life. It's a blue building. No one across Warsaw and then many other parts of Poland is the blue skyscraper. What's the name on the top? Metlite, insurance. This is the Bunker Memorial at Mila 18, where Annie Levitz and the other Zab fighters committed suicide, about two dozen of them, as the SS was closing in on them. And this is what Trablika looks like today. As I said, Trablika is pretty darn remote. But this big marker in the middle here stands where the crematorium was. And you see these stone markers around this? There's about 18,000 of those stone markers. Very few of them have any words on them, although one of the most prominent that does have some writing on it is Janusz Korsak, a marker in honor of Korsak and the children of the church. Most don't have any working on them. And there's two possible explanations as to why there's 18,000 of these stone markers at Trablika scattered around like that. One is that that is probably about the total number of villages, towns, cities, places where the victims of Trablika came from. They might have numbered as many as 18,000 different places. The other explanation is that when Trablika was operating at full capacity, they could execute 18,000 people a day. And since you wrote it, last surviving fighter dies at age 94. You see the date on his death? It's two weeks ago. I share this with my students that we take an event like the Holocaust and we once are relegated to ancient history. We went to say, oh, that was a long time ago and in a different place. The last ghetto fighter just died two weeks ago. Wasn't that long ago? So wasn't that long ago? That's why to come back to this event that Hawi has helped establish. That's why it's so important that we learn and we remember so that it doesn't happen again. And that's it. Thank you. The Holocaust, the year after the war ended in Poland. The Poland, yeah. So when you say it'll never happen again, one year after they killed, how many people? In all of us? Six million Jews? Six million Jews and 11 million in total. It happened one year after. And of course we've had other gemsites in Cambodia that we want to correct, it's absolutely true. I'll tell you something about that name. Simpa in Hebrew means have your joyous occasion. And 18, the numerical value 18 in Judaism means life, I brought it in. So in any derivative, you know, 1,000 you can still do right up in the slide. It's very good. For the two letters that make up. Yeah, I'll tell you a quick, just to blank a story. I went with the human rights group three years ago at Christmas time. I'll be going back to Poland again this coming Christmas. This group travels to the extermination camps in a couple other places between 18 December, 30 December. So you're not home for Christmas. And you go at that time of the year and keep your fingers crossed that the weather is cold and nasty and cloudy and dark. Remember that Treblinka? We had about 20 students with us and one girl was dressed in a red jacket. And she wandered off where all those stones were in that area. She wandered off by herself and she positions herself looking into the forest and didn't move for five minutes. For 10 minutes. And so I talked to my friend, Dr. Rick Halpern, who kind of coordinates these trips. And I said, Rick, you can one of us on a go over and tap her on the shoulder and see if she's okay. And he said, no, I've seen this before. We grew up. And after another couple of minutes, looked up again and she was back with her student colleagues. And I guess that story struck me, you know? That these are very powerful, very moving experiences to actually go to the places and put your feet on the ground where these atrocities took place and they impact people in a variety of different ways. I don't know whether that girl was thinking or what she was processing. You can all imagine all sorts of scenarios for her. But there was something about her to just separate momentarily, stare into the forest and then return. So, it's been a pleasure to be here with you all tonight. Thank you very much. Have a good time. I appreciate your coming. Learn and remember is a powerful set of events. So we thank you for your leadership on this. And so, any other, any questions or comments? Or do you have some of these bright political parties in Europe or re-emerging in China? Poland, certainly, because, yeah. France. France. All over, yeah. So, right here at home. Well, you know, the right here at home thing is kind of interesting because we, when taking students on these trips, have found that you don't have to do a lot of explaining. And while the parallels don't work perfectly, we're saying they don't work easily at all. But still, the nationalist movement that is occurring in the Western world, the United States included, it's interesting how quickly students pick up on this kind of stuff. And say, yeah, yeah, I get it. I see it too. So, other questions or thoughts? Well, I said to myself, I'm gonna keep this to one hour. And I'm looking at the clock, and I think we succeed. We'll see.