 Good evening everyone. Am I audible to you all? We will be discussing about the animal physiology rather human physiology. What do you people understand by the word physiology? What is the meaning of physiology? Please tell me. Do you people know what the word physiology means? Yes. What is there? What is the meaning of physiology? Please tell me. Anyone? See, the physiology word means the meaning of physiology is a study of mechanism of normal function of body. How your body is going to function normally? That falls under physiology. Okay. How digestion is taking place? How circulation is taking place? How blood clotting is taking place? All these things are going to fall under physiology. You must have read about these things. You must have. You can say, came through this word. Pathology. What is the, you can say, meaning of pathology? You keep on observing around you this path lab or that path lab that is there. Isn't it? Pathology means a study of mechanism of disease. Agreed. In that first chapter that we are going to start with is digestion and absorption of food. Yes or no? Digestion and absorption of food. What is digestion? Digestion is like you are going to eat bread, chicken, pulses, etc. These things cannot go into your blood as it is. These things have to be converted into some simple absorbable form. Yes or no? So digestion is breaking down of complex food substances into simple absorbable form. Yes or no? Breaking down of complex food substances into simple absorbable form. Agreed? Do you people know? It is going to be done by two processes. One is mechanical. Another is biochemical. One is mechanical. Another is biochemical. Yes or no? Please tell me. Mechanical power, you can say, part is like you are going to crush the bread or anything that is there with the help of your teeth. That is mechanical and exonophenzyme is biochemical. Any of you have any doubt in this? Any of you have any doubt in this? No? No. Your food is going to contain two factors. There are two kind of food that is there. There are two kind of food that is there. One is that food which is going to provide you with energy. You are going to get energy from that food and one is not going to provide you energy but they are required, they are essential. If they will be absent, disease will be there. Disease will be there. So, the food that provides energy is known as macronutrient or proximate principle and the food that is going to protect your body from infection or any disease is known as micronutrient or protective principle of your food. Carbohydrate, lipids, proteins are the main proximate principle of your food. Vitamin, minerals and water that is there. Vitamin, minerals and water is the protective principle of your food. Yes or no? If we will talk about minerals, minerals are of two types. One is required in an amount that is excess of 100 mg per day. If a mineral is required in an amount in excess of 100 mg per day, this will be known as macroelement and if some mineral is required in an amount less than 100 mg per day, that falls under microelement. Microelements are iodine, iodine, sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride are macroelements. Yes or no? No. Your process of digestion is going to be carried out by your digestive system. The process of digestion is going to be carried out by digestive system. Do you people agree with this? Your digestive system is having two things or you can say two components that is there. One is elementary canal, another is digestive gland. One is elementary canal, another is digestive gland. Yes or no? We will be talking about them only. Let us see. First is elementary canal. Let us see. Elementary canal. This is opening of your oral cavity. This is known as mouth. What is there? Mouth. This one. This will lead to oral cavity. If food is going to enter mouth, it will go inside. This is the food, bolus you can say. Yes or no? So, it is inside oral cavity now. It is inside oral cavity now. Agreed? This oral cavity will lead to this area known as oropharynx. You will see, this is your nostril. From here, air is going to enter a chamber that is known as nasal chamber and nasal chamber is going to open into nasal pharynx through internal layers. Nasal pharynx and oropharynx. Both will constitute what? Pharynx. And pharynx is known as common passes for food and air. Yes or no? Pharynx having two components. Nasal pharynx and oropharynx. Yes or no? Nasal pharynx and oropharynx. And thus pharynx is common passes for food and air. Agreed? Common passes for food and air. Everyone. Everyone. Now, few very important point that should be looked upon. You see, this is your food bolus. You have eaten. Now, it is going like this. You can see there is a structure hanging inside your oral cavity posteriorly that is known as uvula. That is known as uvula. Uvula. Can you people explain what is the function of uvula? Can you people explain what is the function of uvula? Anybody? Please go ahead. It is a gland. No. Imanso, it is not a gland. I told what is the function of uvula? Uvula. Entry of bolus. Where? Adit. This is a very, you can say, general answer. It is not visible. Yes, the screen is not visible. I know. I am just asking what is the function of uvula? You tell me that first. You know. What do you think? If food will go like this, will it push uvula this way? Will it push uvula this way? Tell me. Yes or no? Yes. Then you are swallowing and food is moving like this. It will be pushed like this and will close the internal layers. So, what uvula do? uvula closes internal layers while swallowing. uvula closes internal layers while swallowing or deglutition. Agreed everyone? Yes. It blocks the passage into the nasal cavity when swallowing. Yes. It is there. Everyone got it? Function of uvula? Now you see. Things will go. The food will go into opening of esophagus. Now you see. From the pharynx it will go into esophagus. But there is not only one pipe. There is two pipe that is there. One is your trachea and one is esophagus. There are two pipes that is present. In that you see trachea is present anteriorly. Trachea is present anteriorly. Yes or no? If somebody will ask you, out of trachea and esophagus, which one is present anteriorly? What will you say? Anteriorly. It is trachea. Trachea is present anteriorly. Food is going into esophagus. From esophagus it has to enter stomach. At that junction only what is there? Gastroesophageal sphincter is there. Agreed? What is there? Gastroesophageal sphincter is there. Agreed? Everyone? Gastroesophageal sphincter is there. Agreed? Tell me. So, gastroesophageal sphincter is going to guard opening of esophagus into stomach. Yes or no? Opening of esophagus into stomach. Agreed? No problem? No problem whatsoever? So, it guards opening of esophagus into stomach. Now, this is a stomach. A stomach is going to open into deodenum. This is a structure is C-shaped deodenum. A stomach will open into deodenum. At that place only pyloric sphincter is present. It guards opening of a stomach into deodenum. Pyloric sphincter is present. It guards opening of a stomach into deodenum. Agreed? Everyone? Now, deodenum will lead to jejunum and jejunum will lead to highly coiled ilium. Ilium is going to open into sikha. Ilium is going to open into sikha. And at this place also ilio-sikha valve is there. Ilio-sikha valve is there. It guards opening of ilium into sikha. So, I have told you people deodenum, jejunum and ilium. They are going to form your small intestine. The last part of a small intestine that is ilium, it is going to open into sikha through ilio-sikha valve. Agreed? Can you people see? There is a finger-like projection hanging chrome sikha. What is this known as? What is this known as? This is known as vermi form appendix. It is a vestigial organ in humans. Agreed? Agreed? Everyone? So, from sikha you can say hanging a finger-like projection that is known as vermi form appendix. It is a vestigial organ. Everyone, vestigial organ. Now, you see from the sikha originating ascending colon, it is going up hence ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon. Can you observe it over here? Ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon, you can see over here. Colon, this part is as shaped. You see as shaped, hence known as sigmoid colon, then rectum, then anal canal and then anus. So, you people can think for a minute about all these structures. This part I am going to teach you people separately. You can see over here. Can see over here. This much you people should be knowing. Okay? This much you people should be knowing. Have you any issue in this? Tell me. So, you people can talk about these things a bit. Okay? Now, in oral cavity, in oral cavity present peat. Peat is there. Agreed? So, you people can see over here. What is the function of you can say structure of teeth? The part present in your oral cavity is known as crown and the part present inside the bony socket is known as root. Crown and root that is there. Crown and root that is there. Agreed? Everyone? Now, you see what is the outermost layer of crown? That is why it is in your oral cavity, it is in ML. And what is the outermost covering of root? It is cementum. Okay? It is cementum. Inside in ML is present this yellow color dentine is there in the root also and crown also. And this is pulp. The only living tissue present in the teeth. Peat is attached to, teeth is attached to bony socket with the help of periodontal ligament. Only this much is needed, not more than this. Okay? So, you people should be knowing this thing. Rest is not of your use. See over here. Now, we will be talking about, we will be talking about stomach. We will be talking about stomach. What do you people think? A stomach is divided into four parts. One is fundus, body, pyloric and one is cardiac part. See over here. This part is cardiac. This part is fundus. This is body and this is pyloric. And now one question is there. Isophagus opens into which part? What will you say? Isophagus opens into which part? Of a stomach. You can clearly see. Tell me. It is cardiac part, no? Now, one thing. There are two diseases that you people need to know. What is gastric regurgitation? And one is Ecclidia cardia. Do you people know about this? Do you people know about this? Gastric regurgitation and Ecclidia cardia? Please see to it. Please see to it. At times, due to overeating and all, at time due to overeating and all, this sphincter is not getting closed. It remains open. It remains open due to overeating and many other things that are there. This sphincter is not getting closed. In that case, what happened? The content of a stomach moves out into isophagus and then into oral cavities. This is known as what? Gastric regurgitation. Agreed? And what is Ecclidia cardia? At times, this sphincter do not get, this sphincter do not open. When food is coming, it should open, but it is not opening. If it is not opening in that case, what will happen? This food will remain inside the isophagus. This food will remain inside the esophagus. So, Ecclidia cardia is accumulation of food into isophagus due to failure of cardiac sphincter to relax. You people think on these two diseases that are there. Think about it. Think about it. Got it completely? Got it or not? Tell me. Let us see. Let us see. A stomach is the widest part of elementary canal. It contains finger-like projections known as gastric rugi. And it stores food for four to five hours. And when food mixes with gastric juice, it is known as kind. It is known as kind. Yes or no? Now, one important thing. One important thing that is there. See over here. Here is this part of, you see, I have told you people, I am going to teach you people this part separately. Let us see. Let us see. This is your diodenum. This is your diodenum. Yes or no? Tell me. This is diodenum. Am I audible? You people are not responding at all. Yes. I told, this is C-shaped diodenum. You see, this structure is gallbladder. This structure is gallbladder. You can see there is a duct originating from gallbladder. What is this known as? Cystic duct. What is this known as? Cystic duct. Yes or no? No. From two loaves of liver, ducts are originating. They are known as hepatic duct. They are known as hepatic duct. Yes or no? You see. When this hepatic duct joins the bile duct, sorry, hepatic duct joins the cystic duct, it becomes common bile duct. You see. Duct from gallbladder is joining duct from liver to form what? Common bile duct. Agreed? Now, you see. Common bile duct is going into the, what do you, you people understand by the word duct? What is the meaning of duct? Please let me know. Anybody asses? Anybody else want to try? Anybody else want to try? Tract. Anybody else path for exocrine gland? See, I am going to tell you the simplest word. You just understand duct means pipe. Pipe. Things are flowing through that. Things are flowing through that. That is the simple pipe. So, you see, a pipe from liver is hepatic duct. A pipe from gallbladder is cystic duct. A pipe inside pancreatic duct is pancreatic duct. The name is duct of virsum. Duct of virsum. You see. When common bile duct joins duct of virsum, it forms hepatopancreatic duct. Yes or no? It forms hepatopancreatic duct. Everyone. It forms hepatopancreatic duct. Now, you see. Can you people see this hepatopancreatic duct is getting dilated over here? This dilated part means this dilated part is known as ampulla of water. Ampulla means a dilated portion. Ampulla means a dilated portion. Ampulla of water. You people can observe one thing over here that ampulla of water is guarded by a sphincter of odai. Ampulla of water is guarded by a sphincter of odai. And the opening of common bile duct into main pancreatic duct is guarded by a sphincter of buoyant. A sphincter of buoyant. Yes or no? Everyone? Have you people understood a sphincter of odai, a sphincter of buoyant? You understood see that is actually storing the pancreatic juice and bile that is coming before release into deodenum. Before release into deodenum, you people can see over here. Let us see. Actually, what is there? Actually, what is there? Let us see. When you are not eating, a sphincter of buoyant is closed. Okay. When you do not eat, a sphincter of buoyant is closed. Means, bile releasing from here is not going this way. Rather it is going this way into gallbladder, where it gets stored and concentrated. Yes or no? Yes or no? It gets stored and concentrated. Everyone? Have you understood the pathway? Clearly? No. You people can see these things and agree with me. If you have any doubt, you can ask. Cystic duct, common bile duct, hepatopancreatic duct, you people can see. Any doubt? Any doubt in this? You people can see one more diagram over here. I have already told you parts of intestine, small intestine and large intestine. Which is the longest portion of a small intestine? It is ileum. It is ileum. I have told you everything about the valve and all. Agree? Now, histology of elementary canal. Histology of elementary canal. Do you people know what is histology? What is histology? It is the microscopic study of tissue. Okay. You go to the tissue level and try to find out what all kind of cells are there and that. Okay. So, you see, from esophagus to rectum, elementary canal is made up of four layer. The outer most is serosa, middle is then muscularis, then some mucosa and mucosa. Agreed? It is there. The outer most is serosa, then muscularis, then some mucosa and then mucosa. Okay. This is the lumen where food is there. This is the lumen where food is there. So, if somebody will ask you which layer is going to line the lumen, what will you say? If somebody will ask you which layer is going to line the lumen of elementary canal, what will you say? Which layer? It is innermost. That is mucosa. Good. Okay. The outer most is serosa. Getting my point? Muscularis is outer muscle layer is longitudinal and inner is circular. Agreed? So, you people can see this. We will be talking about histology of villi. Do you know what is villi and what is the function of villi? Are you people are aware of this thing? Are you people aware of this thing? You try to understand. If some increases in intestinal area, yes, of course. Very good. It helps in absorption. You see, this structure is villi. This structure is villi and cells present on this. These are the columnar cells. It is also having, you can see over here, it is also having foldings. This is known as microvilli. So, folding of the cell present on the villi is known as microvilli. Okay. And this kind of epithelium is known as breast-border epithelium. This kind of epithelium is known as breast-border epithelium. So, what is the function of breast-border epithelium? It increases surface area or absorption. Agreed? Let us see. Now, if you will talk about histology of villi, here, here, what all things are there in this, you see? One artery is taking the blood in to it. One vein is taking the blood out and one is lactil. That is the lymph vessel for fat absorption. Fat is being absorbed in this only. Okay. For this, I have taken one diagram, one more diagram over here. Artery, vein, this is lactil. Lactil is the lymph vessel. Later on we will discuss this thing. You people can see this thing and observe for two minutes. I am joining you back, you people back in two minutes. Yes. Yes, lactil for absorption of fat. You people can see this thing, this also. A straight way, I will be starting with process of digestion. You see. Everybody will see. This is the flowchart that is there for digestion. Okay. You all should be thinking what you are eating. Okay. What you are eating and what all glens are there that is going to act and what all secretions are there that is going to act. Okay. Okay. You have taken proteins, carbohydrate, lipids and nucleic acid. It is there in the food. It is there in the food. What will happen in oral cavity? First thing, the mastication will be there. First thing, the mastication will be there. Second thing, the salivary amylase will work. Okay. Mastication will be done by your teeth. It is a mechanical process. Salivary amylase is the enzyme that is going to going to work over there. This is happening in oral cavity. After that food will be swallowed or deglutinate. Deglutation will be there. Deglutation will be there. Yes or no? Everyone in oral cavity, mastication is there. Exxon of salivary amylase is there. Then deglutation is there. And after that through peristalsis, food moves down into a stomach. You can say esophagus. After that food reaches stomach. Here churning movement of a stomach will take place. Yes or no? Gastic juice is going to act. Gastic rugi is going to crush the food mechanically further. After that it will go into a small intestine where bile will act. Pancreatic juice will act. Suckus entericus will act. And here absorption will take place. Then food will go into large intestine. No significant digestive activity will take place. A little bit of absorption will be there. You people first try to think about this flow chart. Whether you are getting or not? What you are eating? What all can happen in oral cavity? What can be there in stomach? And what can be there in intestine, small intestine and large intestine? You people can see this. You think for 2-3 minutes and then try to correlate all the knowledge that you people have earlier. Tell me. You want to say something? That is intestinal juice. What it will do? I am going to discuss now. First you try to see this thing. What this is trying to tell you? Take 2 minutes. Think it. Then now digestion in oral cavity. You see. 2 components are there. One is mechanical component. One is chemical component. I have already told you. What happens? What is the advantage of chewing food? It increases the surface area for enzymatic excel. And as far as chemical component is concerned, first thing is there in your saliva is lysozyme. Then salivary amylase. Lysozyme is going to kill the bacteria. It is antibacterial. Salivary amylase is going to digest starch. Maltose, isomaltose, dextrins. This is there. Have you people done little bit of biomolecule? Are you aware of that? Which kind of bond is present? Which kind of bond is present in starch and all? Are you aware? Please say yes or no. No issues. Then let it be. You are not going to understand this now. Let it be. You just try to understand. Starch will break into maltose and isomaltose. Somebody will ask you what is the rule of lysozyme? It is going to kill the bacteria. Yes or no? Out of the complete starch that is there in the food, only 30 percent is digested in oral cavity. Then things will go by peristaltic movement. It will go into stomach. In esophagus, no significant digestive activity takes place because no enzyme is released over there. Now digestion in stomach. It is important. Again, it is having two components. One is mechanical crushing. It is done by gastric rugi. That is the finger-like projection present in stomach. Food mixed with gastric rugi is known as kaim. And the stomach stores the food for four to five hours. That I have told you people. Enzymatic action. What all enzymatic action will take place in the stomach? See. In the stomach, give me one minute. I am just coming. Try to understand. What is happening in the stomach? Try to understand. Gastric gland. There is one enzyme that is released. It is known as papsynogeal. In gastric gland, three types of cells are there. One is mucous nexile. One is paptyxal and one is perital cell. One is mucous nexile. One is paptyxal and one is perital cell. Yes or no? Please tell me. Mucous nexile protects the gastric mucosa. Like SCL, you people know. Perital cell secretes at SCL. SCL is a strong acid. If it will be secreted, it is going to damage the mucosa. For that, mucous is secreted and it is going to line it and will not let the SCL contact the mucosa directly. Agreed everyone? Try to understand. What is the significance of this SCL secreted from perital cells? You people can see over here. See, all your enzyme that is going to perform the digestive activity is secreted into a pro-enzyme form. Which form? Pro-enzyme form. Inactive form. Yes or no? Active form is papsyne. This is active form and this is inactive form. Inactive form. You see which is going to, what is going to, what is going to convert this pepsinogen into pepsin? Tell me. What is going to convert this pepsinogen into pepsin? Anybody else? SCL. So, pepsin is going to act on protein. One more important thing about SCL I am going to tell you. It is going to convert epi plus 3 into epi plus 2. Absorption of iron takes place in this form only. Absorption of iron takes place in this form only. Agreed? Now you see, if somebody have a chloride, if somebody have a chlorhydria, in that case what will happen? If somebody will have a chlorhydria, in that case what will happen? Try to understand my point. In that case epi plus 3 will not be converted into epi plus 2. In that case epi plus 3 will not be converted into epi plus 2. Yes or no? It will not be converted. And in that case what will happen? Will epi plus 2 be absorbed or not? Will it be absorbed or not? If SCL is not there, in that case absorption of iron will take place or not? Everyone. If a chlorhydria is there means secretion of SCL is not there. In that case what will happen? No. So will level of epi plus 3, you can say iron will fall in your blood. Absorption is not taking place. In that case will level fall. And you know that for synthesis of hemoglobin or synthesis of hemoglobin epi plus 2 is required. And if it is not there hemoglobin will be less. That condition is known as anemia, iron deficiency anemia. So in case of a chlorhydria what will happen? Iron deficiency anemia will take place. Agreed everyone? Everyone tell me. In case of a chlorhydria iron deficiency anemia will take place. Yes or no? One more function of parietal cell is to secrete Kassel's intrinsic factor. Kassel's intrinsic factor. It helps in absorption of vitamin B12. So if parietal cell will be destroyed Kassel's intrinsic factor will not be secreted. In that case vitamin B12 will not be absorbed. Yes or no? Vitamin B12 will not be absorbed. And if it will not be absorbed. In that case one anemia takes place that is known as pernicious anemia. Which anemia? Pernicious anemia. So due to deficiency of Kassel's intrinsic factor which anemia takes place? Pernicious one. You people think on this. Take two minutes. Take your time. Please think and you can say have you any problem in iron deficiency anemia or pernicious anemia or exon of HCl on papcinogen. Have you any issue? Please tell me. Clear. Everyone now you people think this thing. The enzymatic exon in the stomach. Okay. You people see read this thing. Protein is going to be converted into proteoses and peptones like C. Protein is a long chain of amino acid like this. Proteoses and peptones are smaller fragments only. Proteoses and peptones are smaller fragments only. So you people can see over here. One is milk protein name as Casin that is digested by renin into para-casin. Ca plus 2 will combine will form calcium para-casinate the cut like thing then pepsin will act and make it peptones like this only. So for conversion of you can say it is there in the infant. This renin is secreted in infants. So it is very convenient for them to digest large amount of milk. Milk protein is Casin. What happens in a small intestine? You people can see try to think. Try to think I am just coming back in a minute. Can you comment on exon of bile? Can you people comment something on exon of bile? What bile is doing? What bile is doing? You think? I am sure. Let's see. This is a large fat droplet. This is a large fat droplet. You see if this fat if enzyme is going to work on this no it will be able to digest only superficial part. Rest will not be digested. Yes. So what happens? Bile will act will break it into a smaller droplet that is known as emulsification of fats. So it is also going to increase the surface area. It makes the food alkaline and helps in you can say activation of lipase that is the lipid digesting enzyme. What all enzymes are there? That is secreted infant catechus. One is trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen and pro-carboxypeptides. Agreed three enzymes are there according to NCRT11. Again can you see all of them are there in the inactive state? All of them are there in the inactive you can say state. Can you see observe over here? Tell me. So trypsinogen is activated by enzyme known as enterokinase. Trypsinogen is activated by enzyme known as enterokinase secreted by duodenal mucosa into trypsin and rest two will be converted or activated by this trypsin only. So I am writing this line. Do you people agree with this? Trypsinogen is converted into active form by enterokinase and trypsin is going to convert rest of the two enzymes into active form. Tell me now this question. See this question. See this question. Answer is enterokinase. Agreed everyone? Now do you people know what is protein? Protein is a structure formed by amino acid. They are all are amino acids. I have written A for amino acids. Do you know what is this? Name of this bone? It is peptide bone. So if somebody will ask you in protein two amino acids are you can say joined by which bone? What will you say? What will you say? Tell me. In proteins amino acids are joined by which bone? Tell me dear. Am I audible? Peptide bone. Yes. Peptide bone. So what is a dipeptide? Dipeptide contains only two amino acid and one peptide bone. You see. Dipeptide means two amino acid and then one peptide bone that is there. See over here. Proteins, peptones, proteases. They all will be acted upon by these three enzymes. After the action of pancreatic dose, what will you get? Dipeptides. Agreed? Dipeptides. Estarch and dextrins likewise disaccharide. Sucrose is made up of glucose plus fructose. Maltose is made up of glucose plus glucose. Nectose is made up of glucose plus galactose. So you see there are two monoseccharides are there. Hence they are known as disaccharide. So a starch, dextrins, everything that is going to be acted upon by amylase. Do you know? What is the meaning of amylase? Amylase is the carbohydrate digesting enzyme. Carbohydrate digesting enzyme. Yes or no? This is amylase. So you see over here. After the action of pancreatic amylase, what is left? Only disaccharide. Lipid digesting enzyme. You know what is there? Triglyceride. See, triglyceride having one glycerol and three fatty acid molecules. Triglyceride having, you are going to put lipase on it. You are going to put lipase on it. One fatty acid will be removed and it will become triglyceride. How many fatty acids are left in the triglyceride? In triglyceride, one glycerol, three fatty acid were there. I have removed the fatty acid. In that case, in that case, what is there? How many fatty acids are left in triglyceride? How many fatty acids are left in triglyceride? Out of three, one is released. How many is left? Likewise, one more fatty acid is released. It is monoglyceride. One means it is one glycerol plus one fatty acid. It is one glycerol and one fatty acid. Yes or no? Tell me. So I have started with triglyceride and now I have monoglyceride. Have you some basic idea about nucleic acid? Have you some basic idea about nucleic acid? Tell me. Do you people know what is nucleotide? What is nucleoside? Do you people know what is nucleoside? What is nucleotide? No? See over here. Your nucleic acid is a polymer of nucleotide. Nucleotide having three components. Nucleotides having three components. One is pentose sugar, nitrogenous base and phosphate. Pentose sugar, nitrogenous base and phosphate. Now see, when pentose sugar joins with, pentose sugar joins with nitrogenous base, you are going to get nucleoside and when you will add phosphate into nucleoside, you are going to get nucleotide. Means nucleotide having all the three things. Agreed? Everyone? Everyone? Tell me dear. Now when nuclease will act from the pancreatic juice, nucleic acid is a polymer of nucleotide. Means many nucleotides are there that will be released and some of the nucleosides will be formed. Means when a nucleotide becomes a nucleoside, in what case a nucleotide will become a nucleoside? Tell me dear. Please participate in this. See nucleotide having phosphate plus nucleotide means phosphate group is removed. Yes or no? Phosphate group is removed and we have nucleoside. Yes or no? Now we have started from proteins. We have now dipeptides. We have started from, we have started from triglyceride. We have now monoglyceride. We have started from nucleic acid. We have nucleotide and nucleoside. Agreed? We have started from polysaccharide. We have now disaccharide. Means I have now dipeptides, disaccharide, nucleotides and monoglyceride on which intestinal juice is going to act. That is chakka centericus. Somebody has asked me sir what is chakka centericus? So this is the function of chakka centericus. See how many amino acids were there in dipeptide? How many amino acids were there in dipeptide? Tell me dear. How many amino acids were there in dipeptide? Two. So after action of dipeptide is amino acid. Two amino acid will be removed. You can say released. This is the simple absorbable form of protein. Amino acid is the simple absorbable form of protein. So now, can you see protein is converted into simple absorbable form? Is it digestion? Is it digestion? Tell me dear. Yes. Disaccharide. How many monosaccharides are there in this? Sucrose will be broken by sucrage. This is the enzyme or invertase. The same enzyme name as sucrage as well as invertase. So you can see over here. Sucrose is getting converted into glucose and fructose because I have already told you, sucrose is made up of glucose and fructose. So if it will be digested, it will be releasing glucose and fructose. Yes or no? If maltose will break, what will be there? If maltose will break, you see maltose is made up of glucose and glucose. So it will release glucose and glucose and lactose, glucose and galactose. They are the simple absorbable form of carbohydrate. Agreed? Now you see. Now you people see. Try to understand my point. What I want to tell you all? Is this digestion? Digestion is done over here. Now what is there in this monoglyceride? How many fatty acid and how many glycerol molecule are there? Tell me dear. How many one each? Yes. Good. So see monoglyceride will be activated upon by lipids, lipid digesting enzyme of succucinthericus and you are going to get fatty acid and glycerol. You are going to get fatty acid and glycerol. Now if nucleotide, nucleotide will be activated upon by nucleotidease and you are going to get nucleoside and phosphate and when nucleoside will be acted upon by nucleosidease, you are going to get pentose, sugar and nitrogenous base. Yes or no? Yes or no? Have you people understood this process of digestion that has taken place? Everyone? Clear? You all can see. You people can go and read out your 11th NCRT also. Okay. This much I can discuss in that limited time that I have. Okay. Rest you people can ask. You people have my number also. You people have any doubt? You can ask. You are free for that. Don't hesitate while asking. Okay. Now seek. These things are known for you people. These are there for media students. Now we will be talking about blood. Okay. Read simple NCRT of 11th for these topics. Now you see. What is blood? What is blood? Blood is the fluid connective tissue. It lacks fiber. No fiber whatsoever is there in blood. See over here. Blood having 55% plasma. Okay. And 45% formed elements. Yes or no? 55% plasma and 45% formed elements. Easy to it. Out of that protein is around 7 to 8% and water is around 90 to 92%. There are three kind of protein that is there in your body. Mainly albumin. It maintains colloid osmotic pressure. What is this? Globulin and fibrinogen. Fibrinogen is there for blood clotting. Globulin is there for immune defense. See over here. Immune defense. See over here. What is the meaning of colloid osmotic pressure? Let's see. It is your blood vessel. In that lots of proteins are there. These proteins are holding water with it. These proteins are holding water with it. If these proteins will not be there in that case, in that case water will move out of the blood vessel into the, you can say extra vascular space. Yes or no? So it is helping the water to remain inside the blood vessel. Getting my point, in case of liver disease, you people can see this kind of swelling. See over here. Have you people seen this kind of swelling anywhere? Adema. Have you gone through these kinds of swellings earlier in your, or anywhere? Not in books, rather in daily life. Have you seen this kind of swelling? Yes. You are saying yes. I will say, I will say over here, if albumin will be less, no? If albumin will be less, this water which is being hold by albumin will move out of the blood vessel and will cause that kind of swelling that is known as edema. In liver, because albumin is synthesized in liver. So if liver disease is there, in that case this is going to happen. Yes or no? If you will talk about formed elements, you have, you have RBC. These are there. You have WBCs and you have platelets. You have platelets. Platelets are, these are the numbers per cubic millimeter. RBC is number per microliter, you can say. Getting my point, out of that, if you people will see, blood is having plasma formed elements, plasma having 92 percent water, protein 6 to 8 percent. These are the functions that I have already told you people. If you will talk about leukocytes over here, you are going to find two kinds of leukocytes. One is granulocyte. One is agranulocyte. One is granulocyte. One is agranulocyte. What is the difference between them? You see. If you are going to see into microscope, its cytoplasm is going to have this kind of granule and cytoplasm of agranulocyte is going to be clear, clear. Hence the name. Now, neutrophil, basophil, eocenophil, monocyte and lymphocyte. They are there. Granulocyte is of three types and agranulocyte is of two types. Yes or no? See over here. It is there. Even lymphocyte is of two types. You know, b-lymphocyte and t-lymphocyte. Have you heard about these things? Have you heard about these things? T-lymphocyte, b-lymphocyte? No. No issues. In immunity also, we have discussed. It is for immorally immunity. It is for salmediated immunity. So, let us see. Blood is, this is the, you can say, components of blood. You people can observe it very nicely. These are simple things, but will be asked. Be prepared for these things. I have done with this. You see over here. RBC is there. Why it is red? Because of the red-colored pigment. Hence the name, red blood capsules. Hence the name, red blood capsules. It is oval and biconcave. Shape is there. You can see over here. The shape, biconcave. If you will see from side, it will look like this. Here also it is concave. Here also it is concave. So, oval and biconcave. One important thing. Mature mammalian RBC is enucleated. It do not have nucleus. And the cell organelles are not there. Even mitochondria is not there. So, if mitochondria is not there, you can say aerobic respiration is possible. If mitochondria is not there, aerobic respiration is possible. No? Tell me dear. So, what kind of respiration that is going to take place in mature mammalian RBC? That is an aerobic respiration. Means respiration that is without oxygen. If you will talk about number, it is 5 to 5.5 million per cubic millimeter. Yes or no? If you will talk about level of hemoglobin, 12 to 16 gram for 100 ml of blood. And the spleen is known as graveyard of RBC. You know this thing? What is the meaning of graveyard? Any RBC whose lifespan is over will be destroyed in spleen only. And in emergency situation, in emergency situation, spleen is going to you can say manage some blood for the body also. Like in case of some accident when blood loss is there, a spleen can, a spleen can you can say manage 200 to 300 ml of blood. If you will talk about leukocytes, they are granulocyte and a granulocyte. Agreed? Granulocyte is neutrophil, basophil and eosinophil. Neutrophil, basophil and eosinophil. Yes or no? You see, out of the hole, the number of leukocyte is 6000 to 8000 cubic millimeter only. 6000 to 8000 per cubic millimeter. It is there. In RBC, it is in millions. It is in millions. So, you people can see over here, leukocytes are granulocytes and a granulocyte. The most abundant leukocyte is, what will you say? By seeing this statistics, what will you say? The most abundant leukocyte is, tell me, neutrophil is there, it is 60 to 65 percent. Yes, very good. Then basophil, then eosinophil, 2 to 3 percent. Now, I am changing the question. Most abundant agranulocyte is, lymphocyte or monocyte? Lymphocyte or monocyte? Lymphocyte or monocyte? It is lymphocyte, which is, if they will change the question, you have to change your answer. Lymphocyte is there. Agreed? Neutrophil, you try to understand. What is the basis behind this thing? That neutrophil is known as EMNL, polymorphonuclear leukocyte. You see, first it is nucleus having one loop, one loop, then two, then three, then four loops. That means, nucleus keep on changing its morphology. Nucleus keep on changing its morphology. Hence the name polymorphonuclear leukocyte, which is the phagocyte itself. Even monocyte is a phagocyte itself. But what is the difference between neutrophil and you can say monocytes? Tell me, tell me dear, what is the difference between neutrophil and you can say monocytes? What is there? Everyone, see, tell me, please answer. Say, anybody else? Anybody else? Yes, monocyte for chronic disease, Adith has told it right. Monocyte is there for chronic disease and neutrophil is there for acute disease. Everybody will see. I have already told you function of histamine, haparine and serotonin. Anybody having doubt in this? I have already told you regarding the function of histamine, serotonin. Do you people remember or we have to discuss? Let us discuss only. Besophil is going to secrete histamine, serotonin and haparine. Let us see what is going to happen. Everybody, I want to tell you all. See, this is your blood vessel, this is your blood vessel lined by some cells that is known as endothelial cells. Endothelial cells, let us see. Some injuries there, one bacteria is present over here. Bacteria is present over here. Now, your WBC, your WBC has to come out through this to phagocytose this bacteria. Yes or no? If blood is keep on flowing this space, this WBC, WBC will not be able to attach to the ball of blood vessels so that it can come out. It will not be able to do that. It cannot do that. So, in that case, what will be there? First, it will dilate the blood vessel wall, dilate it. Try to understand my point. Okay. Logically, if you will think, you will get the answer. See, this is known as vasodilation. What? Vasodilation. Agreed? Because of vasodilation, what will happen? The flow of blood in that area will decrease. Yes or no? The speed of flow, I will say. Agreed? The speed of flow will decrease. In that case, this will be able to, this will be able to bind to it and it will come out, come out over here and will phagocytose the, you know, by which process WBC move out of the blood vessel? That is known as amyboid movement, diapedesis, diapedesis. Agreed? Everyone? By, through a small space it will come out. So, vasodilation is the function of histamine. Vasodilation is the function of histamine. It is the function of histamine. Now you see, the most common complication that can happen after injury, that can be there, formation of clot, formation of clot. If clot will be formed, you know what will happen? It will keep on moving, it will keep on moving and will take itself into some of the major blood vessel and will obstruct the blood flow over there. So, here, if you will see, haparine is anti-cogulant. Haparine is anti-cogulant. Let's see, what is the function of serotonin? Let's see, if blood will keep on flowing like this only, more blood loss will be there. So, serotonin constricts the blood vessel away from sight of injury. Now, what will happen? The volume of blood that is for, you can say, coming to this area will decrease. Hence, blood loss will be decreased, plus blood loss will be decreasing. Tell me. So, function of serotonin is to prevent blood loss by vasoconstriction. Everyone, do you people agree with role of these three substances? Histamine, haparine and serotonin. Serotonin is actually preventing the blood loss. Yes or no? Everyone, please tell me dear. So, see, all these things are formed and after some time they will be metabolized. After some time they will be metabolized and its effect will be removed. Yes or no? Its effect will not be there after. It will be metabolized. Agreed? Everyone, tell me dear. Are you clear with the function of histamine, serotonin and haparine? Anybody have any issue? Please tell me. Do people get tired? Do people get tired? Clear? If you are saying clear, anybody else? Having doubt? Aditya is saying clear anybody else? So, so, let's see, let's see. I will be saying over here, histamine is there for vasodilation, it is written. Serotonin and anticoagulant is there. Now, what are macrophages? Macrophages are, macrophages are actually, if you will see, macrophages are actually phagocyte itself. They are derived from monocytes. Till it is there in the circulation, blood circulation, it is monocyte and once, till it is there in the blood circulation, it is monocyte. Hence, once it reach inside the tissue space, it is known as macrophages. Two kinds of macrophages are there. Okay? Fixed macrophages and wandering macrophages. Fixed one is present in a specific organ and wandering is there, then they are mobile. Some of the fixed macrophages are in the lung, dust cell are there, in liver, cuffer cells are there, in bone osteoclast is there and in vein microglia is there. Yes or no? So, you people can see over here. I have told you a structure of antibody and all types of T cells and all, I have told you people. Let's see. I will be discussing the blood group now. Have you people some idea about blood group? About blood group? Tell me dear, blood group. Yes, good. Presence of antigen on RBC surface. Anybody else? Tell me dear, first thing, what is, sorry, what is the meaning of antigen is there? What is the meaning of antigen? Tell me. Do you know all your cells having some identity or your cells is having some identity? How your body is going to recognize that this particular cell belong to our body? For that, some glycoproteins are present on the surface that is known as antigen. So, antigen is always present on the cell surface. So, antigen is always present on cell surface. Everyone, do you people agree with me? Try to understand my point. If you will go like that, you are going to understand blood group nicely. So, what happens over here? Try to understand my point. Blood group having two components, you people keep on hearing the O positive, O negative, AB positive, AB negative like that. You keep on hearing what is that? That A, O, B, AB is the part of ABO blood group and that positive and negative is the part of RH blood group. Yes or no? This is the part of ABO blood group and RH blood group is the part of blood group. There are two kind of major blood groups that are there in your body. So, what all possible ABO blood groups are? They are A blood group, B blood group, AB blood group and O blood group. Yes or no? Tell me dear. Have you heard about any other blood group apart from these? Have you heard about any other blood group apart from these? No? Let us see. Here, what is the meaning of A blood group? Tell me that first. Tell me that first. What is the meaning of A blood group? First you understand the meaning. The meaning of A blood group is, the meaning of A blood group is N T is an A present on RBC, N T is an A present on RBC surface and in plasma what is there? N T, B, N T body. N T means what? N T means enemy. If A and T is there, in that case, will it keep its own enemy that is N T A? You have two options for N T body, N T A and N T B. You have two options, you have two options N T A and N T B. Tell me dear. You have two options N T A and N T B. Agreed? So, what do you think? If N T is an A is there, in its plasma N T A should be there or N T B should be there? N T A is going to kill N T is an A, N T B is going to kill N T is an B. Tell me dear. Yes, if somebody having N T, you can say blood group A, if somebody have blood group A, in that case, which is the N T gen that is present? N T is an A and which is the N T body that is present? It is N T B. Yes or no? This is the meaning of, literal meaning of having blood group A. Agreed? Everyone, B blood group. In B blood group, what is there? N Ts and B is present on the cell membrane of RBC and N T body, N T A is present in plasma. Agreed? Everyone, everyone please tell me. Yes, A B blood group. What is the meaning of A B blood group? Tell me. In case of A B blood group, if you will see dear, in case of A B blood group, N T gen A as well as N T gen B is present on RBC surface. Agreed? N T gen A as well as N T gen B are present on RBC surface. So, what is there? But no N T body is present in dissolve, you can say, you can say it is dissolving plasma because if N T A is there, it will kill this. If N T B is there, it will kill this. So, should there be any N T body in case of blood group N T B, you can say blood group A B, should there be any N T body in case of blood group A B? Tell me. No, no, that does not mean having lesser immunity. N T body having some other role. It is for some other purpose. Let us understand. O means no N T gen is there even say on its surface. So, it will keep both the N T body. First, you tell me what is the meaning of blood group A? What is the meaning of blood group B? What is the meaning of blood group A B? And what is the meaning of blood group O? Have you people understood that thing? Tell me. Have you understood the meaning first? Tell me that. Clear. Now, we are saying clear. Let us see. Now, donor and recipient, what is the meaning of that? Like see, I came to Bangalore and unfortunately, met with some accident. Some blood loss is there. I was there in hospital. You people heard about this. You told, you thought, sir is not there. Nobody is there. For sir in Bangalore, we should go. You people came to hospital and donated me blood. In that case, what I am, you can say, I am the recipient and you are the donor. Agree with that? If I am lying down in hospital and I need blood, in that case, what I am? Recipient or donor? Recipient or donor? Everyone. Please see to it. And you people are, who has given me blood is a donor. So, you have to consider anti-zenfant donor and antibody for recipient. You have to consider anti-zenfant donor and antibody for recipient. Yes or no? Everyone. Anti-zenfant donor and antibody for recipient. Agreed? Now, let us see. Now, I am going to check. Everybody will keep all these things in mind. Then only, you will be able to understand this table. Let us see. Let us see. Blood group A is there and I am searching for donor. I am searching for a donor. In that case, what it will become? Tell me. If I am searching for a donor, if I am searching for a donor, you can say donor. In that case, I am searching for a donor. In that case, he will become recipient. Yes or no? If I am lying down in the hospital and you people are searching for a donor, in that case, what will I become? I will become a recipient. So, what you need to see for recipient? At this time, blood group A is recipient and what we see for them? For recipient, what do we see? Please answer. Dear, I am asking. I have decided. I am searching for a donor. In that case, he becomes recipient. I have decided. For recipient, what we see? Anti-zenfant or antibody? Antibody. Everyone. Now see. Antibody. So, see which antibody is there? Means enemy of B is there. Enemy of B is there. What does this mean? What does this mean? Please let me know. Enemy of B is there. What does this mean? Means in his body, which blood cannot come? Who is having antigen B? Means B and AB cannot come. Try to understand my point. Try to understand my point. Try to understand my point. It will kill antigen B, not A. It will kill antigen B. I am saying, I am searching for a donor, for a person having blood group A. He becomes recipient. We see recipient. You can say antibody of the recipient. Which antibody is there? Antibody. Means it will kill antigen B. I have written over here. So, in that case, can the blood having antigen, you can say B can be given to this person? Can it be given? Tell me. If somebody having antibody, you can say antibody, antibody B. Can I give that person a blood having antigen B? No. No. Means I am saying, I cannot give blood having antigen B. So, you see, which blood having antigen B? Which blood having antigen B? Please let me know here. Which blood have antigen B? B and AB. So, B and AB cannot be given. So, what all are left? A can be given and O can be given. So, donor can be A, O and O. Donor can be A and O. Now, I am searching for a recipient. Person's blood group is A. In this case, he becomes donor. If I am searching for a recipient, he will become donor. And what I look for are donors. What I look for a donor? Antibody or antigen? Antigen. Ritu is saying antigen. Anybody else? Anybody else? Antigen or antibody? Let us see. Blood group A having antigen A. At what place antigen A cannot go? Please think. Everyone will start a phrase. I will say over here, for a person having blood group A, I am searching for a recipient. He became donor. He became donor. In that case, I have to look for antigen. Which antigen is there? Antigen A is there. Where this antigen A cannot go? Where this antigen A cannot go? Please tell me dear. Tell me. See, the word is antigen A cannot go where antigen A is present. At what places antigen A is present? Here and here. So, it cannot go over here and here. So, it can go over here and here. So, recipient will be A and AB. Will you be able to apply everything? You can say this concept to all the blood groups. Can you apply? You try to apply. If you have doubt, you can ask me in the next class. Is it clear now? Is it clear now? Tell me. Clear. Everyone. Only two, three students are responding. Yes. Iman Su, ask. Please go ahead. Ask me the doubt. Iman Su, you can ask your doubt. What doubt is there? I am waiting. If we give blood to person with A, will the antigen A not kill? See, the thing is there none. Iman Su, please pay attention over here. Actually, when antigen go inside the body, antibody synthesize over here. Antibody always synthesize in the body. Once blood will come out of the body, it cannot synthesize new antibody. So, whatever present, like I am giving blood O, two person having blood group A. So, this anti A can kill a bit of antigen A, few of them, because antibodies are not present in very great amount. Initially, it is present in very low amount. So, mild reactions can be there, but what will happen? If you are going to give A, you can say you are going to give A B to this person. In that case, what will happen? It will constantly form N T B till all the cells are killed. So, in that case, what will happen? Because it is inside the body, it can synthesize antibody continuously, continuously. So, it will synthesize N T B till all the cells are eliminated. So, in that case, very vigorous reaction is there. In the case you are talking, mild reactions can be there. That can be medically controlled. Yes or no? Iman Su. Now, understood? So, you can say, you people can think antibody will be formed when it is inside body. Means, here continuously N T B can be formed. Any antibody coming from outside is not going to work out. You can say like that. Now, one is R H blood group, an important case. R H blood group. Let us see. It came, R H word came from Rhesus monkey. It is an old world monkey. In that only it is discovered. Later on it is found that it is present on human also, human RBC also. First, what is the meaning of, what is the meaning of being R H positive and R H negative? First, see that. What is the meaning of R H positive individual? That person having R H N T gen on its surface. As R H N T gen is there, so N T R H is not present. This is the meaning of R H positive individual. What is the meaning of R H negative individual? R H N T gen is absent. So, N T R H N T body is dissolved in plasma, but it is not preformed. Not preformed means it is not present already. If exposure will be there, it will be formed. Now, try to apply the same rule that I have applied over here. Two cases are there. One, I am giving R H positive blood to R H negative individual and one, I am giving R H negative blood to R H positive individual. Try to understand which one is possible. Which case is possible in your opinion? You go by all the rules that I have told you people. Case two, that I have written only. You tell me the reason. See over here. I am considering case one. I am giving this blood to this person. He becomes recipient and he is the donor. Or donor, what you are going to consider? N T gen. R H N T gen is there. It is coming over here and N T R H N T body is there. Will it kill it? Will it is going to kill the R H N T gen? Will N T R H N T body going to kill the R H N T gen? If I am going to give this blood to that person, this R H N T gen is going to encounter N T R H N T body. In that case, R H N T gen will be killed or not. R H N T gen will be killed or not. So, case one is not feasible. Try to understand the case two. What is case two? Try to understand. Here if you people will see I am giving R H negative blood to R H positive individual. I am giving R H negative blood to R H positive individual. In this case, this R B C is coming over here. No N T gen is there. N T gen is not there. Neither N T body is there. So, I can give R H negative blood to R H positive individual, but I cannot give R H positive blood to R H negative individual. Hence, universal donor is O negative, not O positive. O negative and universal recipient is A B positive. Agreed? O positive blood cannot be given to O negative individual, but O negative blood can be given to O positive. Yes, I told like you are practicing in some remote area. At that, in that area, at that time the blood was not available. R H positive blood was, R H negative blood was not available. So, one time you people can give R H positive blood to R H negative individual because N T body is not preformed. First time, till it formed, you are going to manage something else. Okay, this is a quite emergency situation that is not usually performed theoretically it is possible. Now, one thing is erythroblastosis fetalis. See over here. Mother is R H negative. Try to understand my point. Mother is R H negative. Mother is R H negative. R H negative. Fetus is R H positive. Try to understand my point. What will happen? First pregnancy will be quite normal. Okay, first pregnancy will be quite normal. Why it is so? Because you people know that placenta is going to separate the maternal and fetal blood. During pregnancy there is no mixing of maternal and fetal blood. Yes or no? Yes or no? Tell me? Or yes or no? Placenta is there. There are lots of barriers are there that is not going to let, that is not going to let the blood of fetal side as well as maternal side to get mixed. Agreed? Do you people agree? So, first pregnancy will be normal. What happens? During parturition, during child birth, placenta is going to rupture. Mixing of blood takes place. Mixing of blood takes place. R H positive blood of child get exposed with R H negative blood of mother. In that case what will happen? If R H positive blood is coming in contact with R H negative individual, in that case this individual will start synthesizing antibody. This individual will start synthesizing the antibody and that antibody, try to understand my point, over here, that antibody N T R H will cross the placenta, will come to fetus and here will start attacking the R H positive erythrocytes. Yes or no? Yes or no? Everyone? Yes. So, in that case if R B C will be attacked, in that case anemia, jaundice, etc. will take place. Anemia, jaundice, etc. will take place. Yes or no? It will take place. Anemia, jaundice. In case of breakdown of R B C or hemoglobin, why usually jaundice takes place? Because byproduct of breakdown of hemoglobin is bilirubin. It is the bile pigment, bile pigment. This is therefore, this is the reason behind jaundice. Okay, aloneness is there, no? It is due to bile pigment only. So, if hemoglobin will be broken down in more amount, bilirubin will be formed in more amount and that will lead to what? Jaundice. And in severe cases, I think, child will die also. Yes. One question was asked, I think by Ritu. Ritu, you have asked the question regarding erythroblastosis fetalis, no? Yes. See, you have asked me, do hepatitis A having any role in erythroblastosis fetalis? There are chiefly, if you will see, hepatitis is of many types, A, B, C, D and E. A and E are not blood-borne at all. That is getting transmitted through thecooral route by infected food. By infected food, they are getting transmitted. Getting my point? By infected food only. So, that cannot cause. Hepatitis C or B, which is getting transmitted by blood, that may have some role. Okay, that may have some role and that is also not that, you can say, concept equals role that is there. Okay, so any disease that is going to affect the liver, okay, in that case it can happen because virus can cross the placenta. It is not easy. Okay, I have tried to search that in medicine books like Davidson and Harrison, not even a single case is given that hepatitis C or any hepatitis has caused, you can say, erythroblastosis fetalis. Usually, it do not happen, Adit. Usually, it do not happen. You are asking solution to erythroblastosis fetalis. Adit, you are asking solution. Yes, solution is there, solution is there. During pregnancy, you can say during parturition also, just after parturition. Okay, the mother is going to be injected with anti-RH antibody. Okay, mother will be injected, so any RH positive blood cell will be seen, that is coming from the fetal side, will be killed immediately. Okay, Adit, turn. Everyone will meet you people in the next class. Okay, the notes that I am going to send you people. Okay, that is, you can say a bit elaborate. Okay, it is better to go for recording. Okay, I will ask Gaurav sir to send you people the recording. Okay, and some questions also I will be sending to you. Okay, bye and good night.