 Kaj je? Čekaj, počekaj, nekaj je osepčen. Vse, da je to všeč bilo vsečen, je to z kaj je 2010, o kaj je osepčen, ki je izgledaj v vsečenih kratkov, kaj je osepčen informacije iz Kikosma. V moj bovnih možno, da je to je počkaj, da je to počkaj, da je to počkaj, da je to počkaj, da je to počkaj, da je to počkaj, da je to počkaj. Vse je koncept, zelo in sepšen. Spesivno, in sepšen je zelo in plantacija, zelo in sepšen je tudi izgleda. So the question I asked and the topic of my presentation is whether it is possible to make it for real. And just to make things clear, I'm pretty sure that there are multiple approaches that can be taken to address this question, but the point of view that I would like to provide is the one of a biologist. So I would like also to explain a bit the biology of memory. So I made it of research and among the other papers the most important that I found is this one, which is entitled Inception of a False Memory by of the genetic manipulation of an apocampal memory syndrome. The paper comes from a very important group. And the head of the laboratory, Susuki Mikaula, won the award a bit more than 30 years ago. So let's see together what they mean when they speak about the inception of a false memory by of the genetic manipulation of an apocampal memory syndrome. And let's start by trying to understand why they speak about apocampal memory. So what I would like you to understand is that there are different forms of memory. I have put here just a couple of examples. First thing about writing a bike. To write a bike is a skill that probably most of us learn when we were kids. It's something that indeed that involves the use of some memory, but it's a form of memory, which is very difficult to conscious and very complex. And even if it could be more, what does it mean to be able to write a bike? On the other side, think about the first date with your partner. Of that episode, we remember every figure, what the e-pace and also what the emotions are. And if you go back to that same place, you will always associate it with that episode in the past. What is very interesting is that we have now a disease that the different forms of memory also associate with the different brain systems. And the words brain systems may sound a bit unclear, but just imagine a brain system as a group of different areas in the brain. So this is the reason why they speak about apocampal memory, because the form of memory that they are manipulating is mainly associated to a region of the brain, which is called apocampus. And let's see now why they speak about memory and memory. And to be honest, to explain what apocampal means in order to take more, at least 15 minutes. However, for the purpose of this presentation, I think it's already a very good approximation. We imagine that memory into our brains can be imagined as groups of neurons which are active together, also in different parts of the brain. This group of neurons, also called approximation, is what we call the angram. Angram is basically the word that we use in neurobiology to indicate the biological equivalent of memory. Our memory is represented in both brains. And this is also why they speak about memory angram. So this association between memory as a group of neurons active together is very important, because if you think about that, now if we have a strategy to control the normal activation, then we might have also the possibility of impacting more memory. And it turns out that this is actually the case. We have multiple ways to control the normal activity, but probably the most used one, the strongest one, is called optogenetics. And that's why they speak about optogenetic manipulation. So also to explain in detail how optogenetics work would probably take most of these 15 minutes and also it was the topic of a pre-user 15x4 talk, so if you are interested, you can also watch that video. For the purpose of this presentation, please keep in mind these two concepts. First of all, that optogenetics is mainly based on a molecule, which is called changodoxin. And this molecule has to be put into neurons through some genetic manipulation, which unfortunately I don't have time to explain. Now changodoxin is a very nice molecule, because it allows to control the normal activation and is to be responsible for light. Now if you imagine that garfid is a neuron that contains changodoxin inside, when no light is present, garfid behaves normally, so it's basically not different. But if you shine the light on it, suddenly it becomes active. This is in few words how optogenetics work. And this is just to make you understand that it might seem that optogenetics is an easy technique, but it's actually not the case. It's a quite handy technique. So now we understood most of the words in this title, and it should be able to understand how this science piece is claiming to have done an exception of a false man. However, guys, I now have to inform you that while I was preparing this talk, mainly about at least paper, a second paper came out, this title, the memory formation in the absence of the experience, and this came out just few weeks ago at the end of April. And to be honest, I think that the second paper is even more relevant for the question of this presentation. So at the beginning my lecture was about this, but then it's been cool. And I just thought that you guys really like what is the state of the art of the theater. So I decided to change the presentation, and for a matter of time I will not anymore present the results of the previous presentation, and instead I will present the results of the second paper, whether any production of the game could be useful in order to understand this one. So follow me in understanding how this science piece back for the memory in the absence of the experience. And first of all, let's see together this example. Think about how the memory of a positive when I make it to this manner is formed. Either when you force this manner, this order in the life of this title, but it can also be for example that you are hitting some fruit, and it turns out to be bad, and you feel sick. So when you smell again this order of this food, you will associate it to an electric experience. So this can also happen for the mouse. If you take a mouse, and you make it to smell a odor, but then you also provide a small electric shock, not very strong, but strong enough that the mouse doesn't like it. The mouse associates this order to an electric experience. So if you represent this order to the mouse, then it might receive an electric shock, so that could be a odor. This order. So let's see now how the memory of a positive when I make it to this manner is formed from a biological account of it. To form this manner in your life at least three different elements. Because the order you need is manner in order, so that means your nose. But of course, your nose alone is not sufficient. And this information to your brain. So something has to translate this order into words that your brain understands. And this is done by some neurons which connect your nose to your brain. And finally, you will see something that tells you whether this is a positive or an electric smell. And this is also done by your brain, especially by some neurons into a brain system. So a group of different brain areas which is called in this system. So to summarize this is how the memory of a positive or an electric smell is formed. Of course, the order you need to smell in order, then you need to translate it into words that your brain understands. And while these neurons are active, are translated in order, or encoded in order, some other neurons set to the new system has to be active and tell you whether this is positive or negative. So when the memory of the order associated to a negative experience that was formed into the mouse brain this is how it is encoded. So people, of course, were able to put transnorobox specifically in those neurons that encode for that order. So when now artificially activated these neurons by shining light the mouse gets an artificial feeling of smelling this order. As well, they were able to put transnorobox in specifically in those neurons that encode for a negative feeling. So when you artificially activate these neurons the mouse gets an artificial feeling of bad experience. You won't see where I am going. If you artificially activate at the same time the neurons that encode for that order and those that encode for a negative feeling an artificial memory is formed into the mouse brain that associates that order to a negative experience. And you know that this is true because if you then present the order even if the mouse has never experienced it before it has never smelled it before it will actively avoid it. So this is, indeed, the formation of a memory in absence of experience. And I think I'd like to summarize what I hope you understood. I hope you understood that memory manifests into different forms and that these different forms are associated with different brain systems. I hope you understood that engram is a word that we use to indicate the biological representation of memory into our brains. And these, to a good approximation can be imagined as groups of neurons into our brain which are active together. I hope you understood that optical genetics is a very powerful technique which allows to control the neural activity and the instrument of the genetics and to the understanding that we have of how memory is encoded it was possible to generate a completely artificial association between a order and a negative experience. So, concluding, I just would like to spend a couple of words to explain why all these should be important. So this is basic science I'm not claiming that there's anything conservation under. However, if you think about that if we understand the basic mechanism underlying mental formation it might be that these we helped us to develop new strategies that are much easier such as, for example, post trauma express disorder and so, thank you for your attention. So we have time for the big questions please. As you do here. Thank you very much for your talk. Could you explain in more details how you undo this link between the neurons? So you're talking about which part of the effects could have on the psychologi, how we undo the link. The link between a negative section and treatment of post trauma express disorder or the link between three different stimuli in the brain which I guess are the second ones. They are not. So, sorry. So, concerning the force then the link between post trauma express disorder and to be honest, not claiming that this is possible at the moment. What I was just saying is that since post trauma express disorder is a disease where a memory of a negative experience is feeding from a cancer it might be that if you understand properly how memory is engoded then you might have some strategies to treat this disorder but I'm not pretending that this has to be an exception. However, what they can have is that there are groups that are working on post trauma express disorder and what they show for this but they're trying to do a different thing. They're trying to reactivate the memory and to establish it which is not an exception. And this, like either some psychotherapy approaches them and just sparkle and for the second question the question is if it's possible to officially forget something. I think at the moment that I think you should forget not what he is doing there but I might be wrong. I was getting an exception to some positive and then this paper came out. Do you have time for some other questions? I will take this Thank you very much I have a question how specific the system is in the case of some study tomorrow how do you know how the scientists actually could see if that was actually the order of the flower or maybe it's a shape of the flower it's a color of the flower maybe it's just a slightest That's a very good question I think of course to simplify the experiment but if you look at the paper there are a couple of studies that they do meaning that it's not that they are just presenting the whole of the mouse they are making two different orders that are different in encoding it and they show that they can't see the man in one of them and not the other at the same time so it's specific for the order but just for the order meaning that it was actually to be able to find a system which is the order and the whole factorial system which is simple enough to do this manipulation you can't do that for other systems of creation Okay, time for one more question Hi, very nice talk Would you like to comment how the information is chosen in the library or in the UI? So it's a very good question So the question is how the information is stored in the library It's a good one So the real answer is that we don't know yet and the answer is that as I say Engram is I made a bit of simplification we say that Engram is simply a group of languages so Engram what you can imagine is that experience makes changes into our brain map into mind, from molecular to network level these changes all together don't know all then this is how memory is stored in our brain or at least how we think how we estimate how the information is stored in the library Thank you Thank you very much