 Reduplication is a morphological operation of repetition, whereby the form of an affix reflects certain phonological characteristics of the base. Cross-linguistically, it is used in inflection to convey a grammatical dimension, such as number, and in derivation to create new words. Furthermore, reduplication is often used when a speaker adopts a tone that is more expressive or figurative than ordinary speech, and it is also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. We will show some examples later. We will proceed as following. We will first of all classify reduplication. We will then look at reduplication in present-day English, and we'll finally exemplify reduplication across languages. Let's start with the classification. There are two main types of reduplication. On the one hand, we can have total reduplication, like in 50-50, or in present-day English, we have things like yum-yum, which is an interjection that expresses some sort of pleasure from eating or the prospect of eating. Or here is a nice example, we-we. Well, this means of course the act or an instance of urinating or the urine itself. Children use this quite often. And then we have partial reduplication, where not the entire word is repeated, the entire base form, but only part of the base. And the reduplicated part itself may involve some additional phonological changes. So we have sing-song, or let's take another example here, ding-dong, ding-dong, which is the sound of a bell, or the sound of alternate chimes. We have things like willy-nilly, and you see again it's not the entire base that is repeated, but part of it, and some change, here, continental changes. This means whether one likes it or not. So these are examples in present-day English. Let's now look at the cases of partial reduplication in more detail. Total reduplication is simply a repetition, so there nothing has to be added. But partial reduplication is quite interesting because there are two phonological principles that are applied. On the one hand we can have the operation of ablouting or phonological change that is involved in reduplication. So normally, ablout refers to a simple vowel change. For example, in flexion you have something like drink-drank, so e becomes a, or in derivation you have something like long, which becomes length. So here you have or becoming a, long length in British English. The ablout type of reduplication does not involve any grammatical changes in present-day English. It changes just the stressed vowel of the base where the rest of the word is simply repeated. So an example here would be in reduplication ding-dong, so e becomes o, ding-dong. So this is a typical example of ablouting in reduplication. Another example would be something like mishmash, ea. In rhyme-motivated examples of reduplication the onset consonant changes while the rest of the base form is repeated. So for example the vowels they are maintained. So our example was willy-nilly where we have a change of the onset consonant willy-nilly and the rest remains as it was. Other examples are well let's take walkie-talkie, you know this word I think, where again we have a change of the onset consonant and the remaining part of the word remains as it was beforehand. In present-day English then reduplication is not really a productive morphological process and it is thus considered marginal as far as linguistic usage is concerned. Let's therefore look at these particular contexts and situations for reduplication in present-day English. Here are the contexts. For example one context concerns borrowing, examples of borrowing from other languages. We have a word in English which is ilang which is simply a type of tree coming from the language malay into the English language, a language spoken in Southeast Asia. A second example would be words that are phonetically suggestive in many cases examples of onomatopoeia. So an example here would be toot-toot. Do I have to explain this word? I don't think so you know what it means. Then sometimes we might put special emphasis on what we want to say. So this is very often a substandard use of present-day English. For example you could say something like this is a no-no with an exclamation mark. This is certainly out. Well and then we will illustrate that in a second we may have examples from pigeons and creoles. Let's postpone that for a second and finally turn at child language. Here you see the young child and young children use very often reduplicated forms like dada which is daddy or bobo so bobo dada etc. So here we have total reduplication. The major motivation for children to produce reduplications may be simply the need to play with sounds and to practice them. So this is some sort of phonetic practice for them. Let's now come back to the case of pigeons and creoles where we might say of course is this really a variety of present-day English or not. We will discuss this question in another video clip in our collection dealing with language dialect and variety. Now here you have an example of Jamaican Creole from the VLC Language Index. An example where someone speaks a Basilect and comes from Portmore that's a district in the southeast of Jamaica. And this is the Jamaican version of the story of the North Wind and the Sun. Now listen to this short part here. And what you found here is something like hard hard. The North Wind started to blow hard hard which is simply reduplication and means very hard. So our example from Jamaican Creole then was hard hard which means very hard. An example of reduplication. Let's now look at further examples from other languages and see what sort of dimensions can be marked with reduplication. Now the languages employ reduplication as a way of expressing various meanings. And here we can identify the following categories. For example, augmentation that is some sort of increase of quantity. And of course the most well-known effect here is the use of reduplication in plural formation. Let's look at an example from Indonesian. Again I have consulted the language index on the VLC to find an example from Indonesian. Well here it is a speaker from the capital Jakarta and here you quite nicely see well let's choose the phonetics. The singular of book is buku. Well in the plural here is a reduplicated form buku buku. There you are inflection via reduplication in Indonesian. The next category can be called intensification that is the increase of degree this time. And the most well-known example here is of course adjectival gradation. Let's look at two examples from African languages this time. And again I will consult the VLC language index. Now in Medumba a Niger-Congo language spoken in Cameroon we can observe the following. The big book is Muikot Muani. And the very big book clearly an example of reduplication. Our next example is from Wolof another Niger-Congo language spoken in Senegal. Here is the example whereas in the previous examples from Indonesian and Medumba we had a total reduplication. Here we have partial reduplication. Let's look at the same thing. The big book is Erebu Makbi. Again Erebu Makbi. And the very big book Erebu Magamakbi. Magamakbi versus Makbi. And here you see we have partial reduplication. Let's return to our final screen. The two categories increase can be contrasted with decrease. And now there of course we find it extremely difficult to find examples across languages. The decrease of quantity, well again we could perhaps look at the following. Here is an example from Indonesian but I don't have sound support this time. The example would be Anak which means child. And Anak means the small child in other words the baby. So that would be the diminution. Or for example in German you have words like this is an interesting thing that comes to my mind. A word like well let's put it here Klein which means small or little. And if a football team plays Klein Klein then they use very short distances for their passing. So that would be an example of diminution in German. The final category concerns attenuation. And this means simply the decrease of degree. So the opposite of the comparative or adjectival gradation. I haven't got an example though but the one which is often used in the literature is something like Dalawa. A word which means wet in Tagalog. Tagalog a language spoken on the Philippines. And if I partially reduplicate that word I get Dalawa which means well let's put it in inverted commas here. Somewhat or a little bit of wet. Among the world's languages the tendency to use reduplication is mainly used to express increase rather than decrease. The operation as such however is applied to inflectional as well as to derivational processes.