 CHAPTER VIII. The Obscurity of the Sacred Writers, though compatible with eloquence, not to be imitated by Christian teachers. But although I take some examples of eloquence from those writings of theirs which there is no difficulty in understanding, we are not by any means to suppose that it is our duty to imitate them in those passages where, with a view to exercise and train the minds of their readers, and to break in upon the satiety and stimulate the zeal of those who are willing to learn, and with a view also to throw a veil over the minds of the Godless, either that they may be converted to piety or shut out from a knowledge of the mysteries, from one or other of these reasons, they have expressed themselves with a useful and wholesome obscurity. They have indeed expressed themselves in such a way that those who, in after-ages, understood and explained them are right, have in the Church of God obtained an esteem, not indeed equal to that with which they are themselves regarded, but coming next to it. The expositors of these writers, then, ought not to express themselves in the same way, as if putting forward their expositions as of the same authority, but they ought, in all their deliverances, to make it their first and chief aim to be understood. Using as far as possible such clearness of speech that either he will be very dull who does not understand them, or that if what they say should not be very easily or quickly understood, the reason will lie not in their manner of expression, but in the difficulty and subtlety of the matter they are trying to explain. End of Chapter 8 Chapter 9. How and with whom difficult passages are to be discussed. For there are some passages which are not understood in their proper force, or are understood with great difficulty at whatever length, however clearly, or with whatever eloquence the speaker may expound them, and these should never be brought before the people at all, or only on rare occasions when there is some urgent reason. In books, however, which are written in such a style that if understood they, so to speak, draw their own readers, and if not understood give no trouble to those who do not care to read them. And in private conversations we must not shrink from the duty of bringing the truth which we ourselves have reached within the comprehension of others, however difficult it may be to understand it, and whatever labor in the way of argument it may cost us. Only two conditions are to be insisted upon, that our hearer or companion should have an earnest desire to learn the truth, and should have capacity of mind to receive it in whatever form it may be communicated, the teacher not being so anxious about the eloquence as about the clearness of his teaching. End of Chapter 9. The Necessity for Perspicuity of Style Now a strong desire for clearness sometimes leads to neglect of the more polished forms of speech, and indifference about what sounds well, compared with what clearly expresses and conveys the meaning intended. Whence a certain author, when dealing with speech of this kind, says that there is in it a kind of careful negligence? Yet, while taking away ornament, it does not bring in vulgarity of speech, though good teachers have, or ought to have, so great an anxiety about teaching that they will employ a word, which cannot be made pure Latin without becoming obscure or ambiguous, but which, when used according to the vulgar idiom, is neither ambiguous nor obscure. Not in the way the learned, but rather in the way the unlearned, employ it. For if our translators did not shrink from saying, non congregabo conventicula aeorum dei sanguinibus, their drink offerings of blood will I not offer. Because they felt that it was important for the sense to put a word here in the plural, which in Latin is only used in the singular, why should a teacher of godliness, who is addressing an unlearned audience, shrink from using awesome instead of osse, if he fear that the latter might not be taken as the singular of osse, but as the singular of aura, seeing that African ears have no quick perception of the shortness or length of vowels. And what advantage is there in purity of speech which does not lead to understanding in the hearer, seeing that there is no use at all in speaking if they do not understand us for whose sake we speak? He therefore who teaches will avoid all words that do not teach, and if instead of them he can find words which are at once pure and intelligible, he will take these by preference. If, however, he cannot, either because there are no such words, or because they do not at the time occur to him, he will use words that are not quite pure, if only the substance of his thought be conveyed and apprehended in its integrity. And this must be insisted on as necessary to our being understood, not only in conversations, whether with one person or with several, but much more in the case of a speech delivered in public. For in conversation anyone has the power of asking a question, but when all are silent that one may be heard and all faces are turned attentively upon him, it is neither customary nor decorous for a person to ask a question about what he does not understand. And on this account the speaker ought to be especially careful to give assistance to those who cannot ask for it. Now a crowd anxious for instruction generally shows by its movements if it understands what is said, and until some indication of this sort be given, the subject discussed ought to be turned over and over, and put in every shape and form and variety of expression, a thing which cannot be done by men who are repeating words prepared beforehand and committed to memory. As soon, however, as the speaker has ascertained that what he says is understood, he ought either to bring his address to a close or pass on to another point. For if a man gives pleasure when he throws light upon points on which people wish for instruction, he becomes weary some when he dwells at length upon things that are already well known, especially when men's expectation was fixed on having the difficulties of the passage removed. For even things that are very well known are told for the sake of the pleasure they give, if the attention be directed not to the things themselves, but to the way in which they are told. Nay, even when the style itself is already well known, if it be pleasing to the hearers it is almost a matter of indifference whether he who speaks be a speaker or a reader. For things that are gracefully written are often not only read with delight by those who are making their first acquaintance with them, but reread with delight by those who have already made acquaintance with them, and have not yet forgotten them. Nay, both of these classes will derive pleasure even from hearing another man repeat them. And if a man has forgotten anything, when he is reminded of it, he is taught. But I am not now treating of the mode of giving pleasure. I am speaking of the mode in which men who desire to learn ought to be taught. And the best mode is that which secures that he who hears shall hear the truth, and that what he hears he shall understand. And when this point has been reached, no further labor need be spent on the truth itself, as if it required further explanation. But perhaps some trouble may be taken to enforce it so as to bring it home to the heart. If it appear right to do this it ought to be done so moderately as not to lead to weariness and impatience. End of Chapter 10 Chapter 11 The Christian Teacher Must Speak Clearly But Not Inelegantly For teaching, of course, true eloquence consists not in making people like what they disliked, nor in making them do what they shrank from, but in making clear what was obscure. Yet if this be done without grace of style, the benefit does not extend beyond the few eager students who are anxious to know whatever is to be learned. However, rude and unpolished the form in which it is put, and who, when they have succeeded in their object, find the plain truth pleasant food enough. And it is one of the distinctive features of good intellects not to love words, but the truth in words. For of what service is a golden key if it cannot open what we want it to open? Or what objection is there to a wooden one if it can, seeing that to open what is shut is all we want? But as there is a certain analogy between learning and eating, the very food without which it is impossible to live must be flavored to meet the tastes of the majority. End of Chapter 11 Chapter 12 The aim of the orator, according to Cicero, is to teach, to delight, and to move. Of these teaching is the most essential. Accordingly, a great orator has truly said, an eloquent man must speak so as to teach, to delight, and to persuade. Then he adds, to teach is a necessity, to delight is a beauty, to persuade is a triumph. Now, of these three, the one first mentioned, the teaching, which is a matter of necessity, depends on what we say, the other two, on the way we say it. He then, who speaks with the purpose of teaching, should not suppose that he has said what he has to say as long as he is not understood. For although what he has said be intelligible to himself, it is not said at all to the man who does not understand it. If, however, it is understood, he has said his say, whatever may have been his manner of saying it. But, if he wishes to delight or to persuade his hearer as well, he will not accomplish that end by putting his thought in any shape no matter what, but for that purpose the style of speaking is a matter of importance. And as the hearer must be pleased in order to secure his attention, so he must be persuaded in order to move him to action. And, as he is pleased if you speak with sweetness and elegance, so he is persuaded if he be drawn by your promises and awed by your threats, if he reject what you condemn and embrace what you commend, if he grieve when you heap up objects for grief and rejoice when you point out an object for joy, if he pity those whom you present to him as objects of pity and shrink from those whom you set before him as men to be feared and shunned. I need not go over all the other things that can be done by powerful eloquence to move the minds of the hearers, not telling them what they ought to do, but urging them to do what they already know ought to be done. If, however, they do not yet know this, they must, of course, be instructed before they can be moved, and perhaps the mere knowledge of their duty will have such an effect that there will be no need to move them with greater strength of eloquence. Yet, when this is needful, it ought to be done, and it is needful when people, knowing what they ought to do, do it not. Therefore, to teach is a necessity. For what men know it is in their own hands either to do or not to do, but who would say that it is their duty to do what they do not know? On the same principle, to persuade is not a necessity, for it is not always called for. As, for example, when the hearer yields his assent to one who simply teaches or gives pleasure. For this reason, also to persuade is a triumph, because it is possible that a man may be taught and delighted, and yet not give his consent. And what will be the use of gaining the first two ends if we fail in the third? Neither is it a necessity to give pleasure, for when, in the course of an address, the truth is clearly pointed out, and this is the true function of teaching, it is not the fact, nor is it the intention that the style of speech should make the truth pleasing, or that the style should of itself give pleasure. But the truth itself, when exhibited in its naked simplicity, gives pleasure, because it is the truth, and hence even falsities are frequently a source of pleasure when they are brought to light and exposed. It is not, of course, their falsity that gives pleasure, but as it is true that they are false, the speech which shows this to be true gives pleasure. CHAPTER XIII The hearer must be moved as well as instructed. But for the sake of those who are so fastidious that they do not care for truth, unless it is put in the form of a pleasing discourse, no small place has been assigned in eloquence to the art of pleasing. And yet even this is not enough for those stubborn-minded men who both understand and are pleased with the teacher's discourse without deriving any profit from it. For what does it profit a man that he both confesses the truth and praises the eloquence if he does not yield his consent, when it is only for the sake of securing his consent that the speaker in urging the truth gives careful attention to what he says? If the truths taught are such that to believe or to know them is enough, to give one's assent implies nothing more than to confess that they are true. When, however, the truth taught is one that must be carried into practice, and that is taught for the very purpose of being practiced, it is useless to be persuaded of the truth of what is said. It is useless to be pleased with the manner in which it is said, if it be not so learnt as to be practiced. The eloquent divine, then, when he is urging a practical truth, must not only teach so as to give instruction and please to as to keep up the attention, but he must also sway the mind so as to subdue the will. For if a man be not moved by the force of truth, though it is demonstrated to his own confession and clothed in beauty of style, nothing remains but to subdue him by the power of eloquence. CHAPTER XIV BEAUTY OF DICTION TO BE IN KEEPING WITH THE MATTER When so much labour has been spent by men on the beauty of expression here spoken of, that not only is it not our duty to do, but it is our duty to shun in abhor many and heinous deeds of wickedness and baseness which wicked and basemen have with great eloquence recommended. Not with a view to gaining assent, but merely for the sake of being read with pleasure, but may God avert from his church what the prophet Jeremiah says of the synagogue of the Jews. A wonderful and horrible thing is committed in the land. The prophets prophesy falsely, and the priests applaud them with their hands. And my people love to have it so. And what will ye do in the end thereof? O eloquence which is the more terrible from its purity and the more crushing from its solidity. Assuredly it is a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces. For to this God himself has by the same prophet compared his own words spoken through his holy prophets. God forbid then, God forbid, that with us the priests should applaud the false prophet, and that God's people should love to have it so. God forbid, I say, that with us there should be such terrible madness. For what shall we do in the end thereof? And assuredly it is preferable, even though what is said should be less intelligible, less pleasing, and less persuasive, that truth be spoken, and that what is just, not what is iniquitous, be listened to with pleasure. But this, of course, cannot be, unless what is true and just, be expressed with elegance. In serious assembly, moreover, such as is spoken of, when it is said, I will praise thee among much people. No pleasure is derived from that species of eloquence which indeed says nothing that is false, but which buries small and unimportant truths under a frothy mass of ornamental words, such as would not be graceful or dignified, even if used to adorn great and fundamental truths. And something of this sort occurs in the letter of the Blessed Cyprian, which I think came there by accident, or else was inserted designedly with this view, that posterity might see how the wholesome discipline of Christian teaching had cured him of that redundancy of language, and confined him to a more dignified and modest form of eloquence, such as we find in his subsequent letters, a style which is admired without effort, and sought after with eagerness, but is not attained without great difficulty. He says then, in one place, Let us seek this abode, the neighboring solitudes afford a retreat where, whilst the spreading shoots of the vine-trees, pendulous and intertwined, creep amongst the supporting reeds, the leafy covering has made a portico of fine. There is wonderful fluency and exuberance of language here, but it is too floored to be pleasing to serious minds. But people who are fond of this style are apt to think that men who do not use it, but employ a more chastened style, do so because they cannot attain the former, not because their judgment teaches them to avoid it. Wherefore this holy man shows both that he can speak in that style, for he has done so once, and that he does not choose, for he never chooses it again. After fifteen the Christian teacher should pray before preaching. And so our Christian orator, while he says what is just and holy and good, and he ought never to say anything else, does all he can to be heard with intelligence, with pleasure, and with obedience. And he need not doubt that if he succeed in this object, and so far as he succeeds he will succeed more by piety and prayer than by gifts of oratory, and so he ought to pray for himself, and for those he is about to address before he attempts to speak. And when the hour is come that he must speak he ought, before he opens his mouth, to lift up his thirsty soul to God, to drink in what he is about to pour forth, and to be himself filled with what he is about to distribute. For as in regard to every matter of faith and love there are many things that may be said, and many ways of saying them, who knows what it is expedient at a given moment for us to say, or to be heard saying, except God who knows the hearts of all, and who can make us say what we ought and in the way we ought except him in whose hand both we and our speeches are. Accordingly he who is anxious both to know and to teach should learn all that is to be taught, and acquire such a faculty of speech as is suitable for a divine. But when the hour for speech arrives let him reflect upon that saying of our lords as better suited to the wants of a pious mind. Take no thought how or what ye shall speak, for it shall be given you in that same hour what ye shall speak. For it is not ye that speak, but the spirit of your father which speaketh in you. The Holy Spirit then speaks thus in those who, for Christ's sake, are delivered to the persecutors. Why not also in those who deliver Christ's message to those who are willing to learn? CHAPTER XVI Human directions not to be despised, though God makes the true teacher. Now if anyone says that we need not direct men how or what they should teach, since the Holy Spirit makes them teachers, he may as well say that we need not pray, since our Lord says, your father knoweth what things ye have need of before ye ask him, or that the Apostle Paul should not have given directions to Timothy and Titus as to how or what they should teach others. And these three apostolic epistles ought to be constantly before the eyes of everyone who has obtained the position of a teacher in the church. In the first epistle to Timothy, do we not read, these things command and teach. What these things are has been told previously. Do we not read there? Rebuke not an elder, but entreat him as a father. Is it not said in the second epistle? Hold fast the form of sound words which thou hast heard of me. And is he not there told? Study to show thyself approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth. And in the same place, preach the word, be instant in season, out of season. Reprove, rebuke, exhort with all long suffering in doctrine. And so in the epistle to Titus does he not say that a bishop ought to hold fast the faithful word as he hath been taught, that he may be able by sound doctrine both to exhort and to convince the gainsayers. There, too, he says, but speak thou the things which become sound doctrine, that the aged men be sober, and so on. And there, too, these things speak and exhort and rebuke with all authority. Let no man despise thee. Put them in mind to be subject to principalities and powers and so on. What then are we to think? Does the apostle in any way contradict himself when, though he says that men are made teachers by the operation of the Holy Spirit, he yet himself gives them directions how and what they should teach? Or are we to understand that though the duty of men to teach even the teachers does not cease when the Holy Spirit is given, that that neither is he who planteth anything, nor he who watereth but God who giveth the increase? Wherefore, though holy men be our helpers, or even holy angels assist us, no one learns a right the things that pertain to life with God, until God makes him ready to learn from himself. That God, who is thus addressed in the psalm, teach me to do thy will, for thou art my God. And so the same apostle says to Timothy himself, speaking, of course, as teacher to disciple, but continue thou in the things which thou hast learned, and hast been assured of, knowing of whom thou hast learned them. For as the medicines which men apply to the bodies of their fellow men are of no avail except God gives them virtue, who can heal without their aid, though they cannot without his, and yet they are applied, and if it be done from a sense of duty, it is esteemed a work of mercy or benevolence. So the aids of teaching, applied through the instrumentality of men, are of advantage to the soul only when God works to make them of advantage, who could give the gospel to man, even without the help or agency of men. CHAPTER XVII. He then, who in speaking aims at enforcing what is good, should not despise any of those three objects either to teach or to give pleasure or to move, and should pray and strive, as we have said above, to be heard with intelligence, with pleasure, and with ready compliance. And when he does this with elegance and propriety, he may justly be called eloquent, even though he do not carry with him the ascent of his hearer. For it is these three ends, that is, teaching, giving pleasure, and moving, that the great master of Roman eloquence himself seems to have intended that the following three directions should subserve. He then shall be eloquent, who can say little things in a subdued style, moderate things in a temperate style, and great things in a majestic style, as if he had taken in also the three ends mentioned above, and had embraced the whole in one sentence thus. He then shall be eloquent, who can say little things in a subdued style, in order to give instruction, moderate things in a temperate style, in order to give pleasure, and great things in a majestic style, in order to sway the mind. CHAPTER XVIII. The Christian orator is constantly dealing with great matters. Now the author I have quoted could have exemplified these three directions as laid down by himself in regard to legal questions. He could not, however, have done so in regard to ecclesiastical questions. The only ones that an address such as I wish to give shape to is concerned with. For of legal questions those are called small which have reference to pecuniary transactions. Those great were a matter relating to man's life or liberty comes up. Cases again which have to do with neither of these, and where the intention is not to get the hearer to do or to pronounce judgment upon anything, but only to give him pleasure, occupy as it were a middle place between the former two, and are on that account called middling or moderate. For moderate things get their name from modus, a measure, but it is an abuse, not a proper use of the word moderate, to put it for little. In questions like ours, however, where all things and especially those addressed to the people from the place of authority ought to have reference to men's salvation, and that not their temporal but their eternal salvation, and where also the thing to be guarded against is eternal ruin, everything that we say is important. So much so that even what the preacher says about pecuniary matters, whether it have reference to loss or gain, whether the amount be great or small, should not seem unimportant. For justice is never unimportant, and justice ought assuredly to be observed, even in small affairs of money, as our Lord says, he that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much. And that which is least, then, is very little, but to be faithful in that which is least is great. For as the nature of a circle, that is, all lines drawn from the center to the circumference are equal, is the same in a great disk as it is in the smallest coin. So the greatness of justice is in no degree lessened, though the matters in which justice is applied be small. And when the apostle spoke about trials in regard to secular affairs, and what were these but matters of money, he says, dare any of you having a matter against another go to law before the unjust and not before the saints? Do ye not know that the saints shall judge the world? And if the world shall be judged by you, are ye unworthy to judge the smallest matters? Know ye not that we shall judge angels? How much more things that pertain to this life? If, then, ye have judgments of things pertaining to this life, set them to judge who are least esteemed in the church? I speak to your shame. Is it so that there is not a wise man among you? No, not one that shall be able to judge between his brethren? But brother goeth to law with brother, and that before the unbelievers. Now, therefore, there is utterly a fault among you, because ye go to law with one another. Why do ye not rather take wrong? Why do ye not rather suffer yourselves to be defrauded? Nay, ye do wrong, and defraud, and that your brethren. Know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God? Why is it that the apostle is so indignant, and that he thus accuses and upbrades and chides and threatens? Why is it that the changes in his tone so frequent and so abrupt testify to the depth of his emotion? Why is it, in fine, that he speaks in a tone so exalted about matters so very trifling? Did secular matters deserve so much at his hands? God forbid. No. But all this is done for the sake of justice, charity, and piety, which in the judgment of every sober mind are great, even when applied to matters the very least. Of course, if we were giving men advice as to how they ought to conduct secular cases, either for themselves or their connections, before the church courts, he would rightly advise them to conduct them quietly as matters of little moment. But we are treating of the manner of speech of the man who is to be a teacher of the truths which deliver us from eternal misery, and bring us to eternal happiness. And whenever these truths are spoken of, whether in public or private, whether to one or many, whether to friends or enemies, whether in a continuous discourse or in conversation, whether in tracks or in books or in letters long or short, they are of great importance. Unless indeed we are prepared to say that because a cup of cold water is a very trifling and common thing, the saying of our Lord that he who gives a cup of cold water to one of his disciples shall in no wise lose his reward, is very trivial and unimportant. Or that when a preacher takes this saying as his text, he should think his subject very unimportant, and therefore speak without either eloquence or power, but in a subdued and humble style. Is it not the case that when we happen to speak on this subject to the people, and the presence of God is with us, so that what we say is not altogether unworthy of the subject, a tongue of fire springs up out of that cold water which inflames even the cold hearts of men with a zeal for doing works of mercy in hope of an eternal reward. Augustine of Hippo translated by J. F. Shaw, section number 21. Chapter 19. The Christian teacher must use different styles on different occasions. 38. And yet while our teacher ought to speak of great matters, he ought not always to be speaking of them in a majestic tone, but in a subdued tone when he is teaching temperately when he is giving praise or blame. One, however, something is to be done, and we are speaking to those who ought, but are not willing to do it. Then great matters must be spoken of with power, and in a manner calculated to sway the mind. And sometimes the same important matters treat it in all these ways at different times, quietly when it is being taught, temperately when its importance is being urged, and powerfully when we are forcing a mind that is averse to the truth to turn and embrace it. For is there anything greater than God Himself? Is nothing then to be learned about Him? Or ought he who is teaching the trinity in unity to speak of it otherwise than in the method of calm discussion, so that in regard to a subject which it is not easy to comprehend, we may understand as much as it has given us to understand? Are we in this case to seek out ornaments instead of proofs? Or is the here to be moved to do something instead of being instructed so that he may learn something? But when we come to praise God, either in himself or in his works, what a field for beauty and splendor of language opens up before man, who can task his powers to the utmost in praising him, whom no one can adequately praise, though there is no one who does not praise him in some measure. But if he be not worshiped, or if idols, whether they be demons or any created being whatever, be worshiped with him or in preference to him, and then we ought to speak out with power and impressiveness, show how great a wickedness this and urge men to flee from it. Chapter 20. Examples of the various styles drawn from Scripture. 39. But now to come to something more definite. We have an example of the calm, subdued style in the apostle Paul, where he says, Tell me ye that desire to be under the law. Do ye not hear the law? For it is written that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bond maid, the other by a free woman. But he who was of the bond woman was born after the flesh, but he of the free woman was by promise. Which things are an allegory? For these are the two covenants, the one from the Mount Sinai, which gendereth to bondage, which is Hagar. For this Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia, an answereth to Jerusalem, which now is and is in bondage with her children. But Jerusalem, which is above, is free, which is the mother of us all, and so on. And in the same way where he reasons thus, Brethren, I speak after the manner of men, though it be but a man's covenant, yet if it be confirmed no man disannuleth, or addeth thereto. Not to Abraham and his seed were the promises made. He saith not, and to seeds, as of many, but as of one, and to thy seed, which is Christ. In this I say that the covenant that was confirmed before of God, in Christ the law, which was 430 years after, cannot disannul, that it should make the promise of none effect. For if the inheritance be of the law, it is no more of promise. But God gave it to Abraham by promise. And because it might possibly occur to the hearer to ask, if there is no inheritance by the law, why then was the law given? He himself anticipates this objection and asks, wherefore then serveth the law? And the answer is given. It was added because of transgressions, till the seed should come to whom the promise was made. And it was ordained by angels in the hand of a mediator. Now a mediator is not a mediator of one, but God is one. And here an objection occurs, which he himself has stated. Is the law then against the promises of God? He answers, God forbid. And he also states the reason in these words. For if there had been a law given, which could have given life, verily righteousness should have been by the law. But the Scripture hath concluded all under sin, that the promise by faith of Jesus Christ might be given to them that believe. It is part, then, of the duty of the teacher, not only to interpret what is obscure, but to unravel the difficulties of questions, but also while doing this, to meet other questions which may chance to suggest themselves, lest these should cast doubt or discredit on what we say. If, however, the solution of these questions suggests itself as soon as the questions themselves arise, it is useless to disturb what we cannot remove. And besides, when out of one question other questions arise, and out of these against others, if these should be all discussed and solved, the reasoning is extended to such a length that, unless the memory be exceedingly powerful and active, the reasoner finds it impossible to return to the original question from which he set out. It is, however, exceedingly desirable that whatever occurs in the mind as an objection that might be urged should be stated and refuted, lest it turn up at a time when no one will be present to answer it, or lest if it should occur to a man who is present but says nothing about it, it might never be thoroughly removed. 40. In the following words of the Apostle we have the temperate style. Rebuke not an elder, but entreat him as a father, and the younger men as brethren, the elder woman as mothers, the younger as sisters. And also on these, I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable service. In almost the whole of this oratory passage is in the temperate style of eloquence, and those parts of it are the most beautiful in which, as at paying what was due, things that belong to each other are gracefully brought together. For example, having then gifts differing according to the grace that is given to us, whether prophecy, let us prophesy according to the proportion of faith, or ministry, let us wait on our ministry, or he that teacheth on teaching, or he that exhorted on exhortation, he that giveth, let him do it with simplicity, he that ruleth with diligence, he that showeth mercy with cheerfulness, let love be without dissimulation, a poor that which is evil, cleave to that which is good, be kindly affectioned one to the other with brotherly love, in honor preferring one another, not slothful in business, fervent in spirit, serving the Lord, rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation, continuing instant in prayer, distributing to the necessity of saints, given to hospitality, bless them which persecute you, bless and curse not, rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep, be of the same mind one toward another. And how gracefully all this is brought to a close in a period of two members, mind not high things, but condescend to men of low estate. And a little afterwards, render therefore to all their dues, tribute to whom tribute is due, custom to whom custom, fear to whom fear, honor to whom honor. And these also, though expressed in single clauses, are terminated by a period of two members. O no man, anything but to love one another. And a little farther on, the night is far spent, the day is at hand, let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, let us put on the armor of light, let us walk honestly, as in the day, not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh, to fulfill the lust thereof. Now if the passage were translated thus, et carnis providencium ne in concupisentius viseraitus, the year would no doubt be gratified with a more harmonious ending, but our translator with more strictness preferred to retain even the order of the words, and how this sounds in the Greek language in which the apostle spoke, those who were better skilled in that tongue may determine. My opinion, however, is that what has been translated to us in the same order of words does not run very harmoniously, even in the original tongue. Forty-one. And indeed I must confess that our authors are very defective in that graceous speech which consists in harmonious endings. Whether this be the fault of the translators, or whether, as I am more inclined to believe, the authors designately avoid it such ornaments, I dare not affirm, for I confess I do not know. This I know, however, that if anyone who is skilled in this species of harmony would take the closing sentences of these writers and arrange them according to the law of harmony, which he could very easily do by changing some words for words of equivalent meaning, or by retaining the words he finds in altering their arrangement, he will learn that these divinely inspired men are not defective in any of those points which he has been taught in the schools of the grammarians and rhetoricicians to consider of importance, and he will find in them many kinds of speech of great beauty, beautiful even in our language, but especially beautiful in the original, none of which can be found in those writings of which they boast so much, but care must be taken that while adding harmony we take away none of the weight from these divine and authoritative utterances, now our prophets were so far from being deficit in the musical training from which this harmony we speak of is most fully learned, that Jerome, a very learning man, describes even the meters employed by some of them in the Hebrew language at least, though in order to give an accurate rendering of the words he is not preserved these in his translation. I, however, to speak of my own feeling, which is better known to me than it is to others than of others is to me, while I do not in my own speech, however modestly I think it done, neglect these harmonious endings, am just as well pleased to find them in the sacred authors very rarely. 42. The majestic style of speech differs from the temperate style just spoken of, chiefly in that it is not so much decked out with verbal ornaments as exalted into vehemence by mental emotion. It uses indeed nearly all the ornaments that the other does, but if they do not happen to be at hand it does not seek for them, for it is borne on by its own vehemence, and the force of the thought, not the desire for ornament, makes it seize upon any beauty of expression that comes in its way. It is enough for its object that warmth of feeling should suggest the fitting words. They need not be selected by careful elaboration of speech. For brave man be armed with weapons adorned with golden jewels, he works feats of valor with those arms in the heat of battle, not because they are costly, but because they are arms, and yet the same man does great execution, even when anger furnishes him with a weapon that he digs out of the ground. The apostle in the following passage is urging that, for the sake of the ministry of the gospel, and sustained by the consolations of God's grace, we should bear with patience all the evils of this life. It is a great subject, and is treated with power, and the ornaments of speech are not wanting. Behold, he says, now is the accepted time. Behold, now is the day of salvation. Give no offense in anything that the ministry be not blamed, but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God, in much patience, in afflictions, in necessities, in distresses and strife, in imprisonments, in tumults, in labors, in watchings, in fastings, by pureness, by knowledge, by long-suffering, by kindness, by the Holy Spirit, by love unfaithful, by the word of truth, by the power of God, by the armor of righteousness on the right hand, and on the left by honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, as deceivers and yet true, as unknown and yet well known, as dying and behold we live, as chastened and not killed, as sorrowful yet always rejoicing, as poor yet making many rich, as having nothing and yet possessing all things. See him still burning, O ye Corinthians, our mouth is opened unto you, our heart is enlarged, and so on it would be tedious to go through it all. 43, and in the same way, writing to the Romans, he urges that the persecutions of this world should be overcome by charity, in assured reliance on the help of God, and he treats this subject with both power and beauty. We know, he says, that all things work together for good to them that love God, to them who are the called according to his purpose, for whom he did foreknow, he also did predestinate to be conformed to the image of his son, that he might be the first born among many brethren. Moreover, whom he did predestinate, them he also called, and whom he called, them he also justified, and whom he justified, them he also glorified. What shall we then say to these things? If God be for us, who can be against us? He that spared not his own son, but delivered him up for us all, how shall he not with him also freely give us all things? Who shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect? It is God that justifies, who is he that condemneth? It is Christ that died, ye rather that, is risen again, who is even at the right hand of God, who also make it intercession for us. Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? As it is written, for thy sake we are killed all the day long, we are counted as sheep for the slaughter. Nay, in all these things we are more than conquerors, through him that loved us, for I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord. 44 Again in writing to the Galatians, although the whole epistle is written in the subdued style, except at the end, where it rises into a temperate eloquence, yet he interposes one passage of so much feeling that, notwithstanding the absence of any ornaments, such as appear in the passages, just quoted, it cannot be called anything but powerful. You observe days, and months, and times, and years. I am afraid of you, lest I have bestowed upon you labor and vain. Brethren, I proceed you, be as I am, for I am as ye are. You have not injured me at all. You know how, through infirmity of the flesh, I preached the gospel unto you at the first. In my temptation, which was in my flesh, ye despise not, nor reject it, but receive me as an angel of God, even as Christ Jesus. Whereas then the blessedness ye spake of, for I bear you record that, if it had been possible, ye would have plucked out your own eyes, and have given them to me. Am I therefore become your enemy, because I tell you the truth? They zealously affect you, but not well. Yea, they would exclude you, that ye might affect them. But it is good to be zealously affected always in a good thing, and not only when I am present with you. My little children, of whom I travail and birth again until Christ be formed in you, I desire to be present with you now, and to change my voice, for I stand in doubt of you. Is there anything here of contrast at words arranged antithetically, or of words rising gradually to a climax, or of sonorous clauses and sections and periods? Yet notwithstanding there is a glow of strong emotion that makes us feel the fervor of eloquence. End of section 21. Section 22 of On Christian Doctrine. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. On Christian Doctrine by Augustine of Hippo. Translated by J. F. Shaw. Section 22. Book 4. Chapter 21. Examples of the various styles drawn from the teachers of the church, especially Ambrose and Cyprian. 45. But these writings of the apostles, though clear, are yet profound, and are so written that one who is not content with his superficial acquaintance, but desires to know them thoroughly, must not only read and hear them, but must have an expository. Let us then study these various modes of speech as they are exemplified in the writings of men who, by reading the scriptures, have attained to the knowledge of divine and saving truth, and have ministered it to the church. Cyprian of blessed memory writes in the subdued style in his treatise on the sacraments of the cup. In this book he resolves the question whether the cup of the Lord ought to contain water only or water mingled with wine. But we must quote a passage by way of illustration. After the customary introduction, he proceeds to the discussion of the point in question. Observe, he says, that we are instructed in presenting the cup to maintain the custom and hand it down from us from the Lord, and to do nothing that our Lord has not first done for us, so that the cup which is offered in remembrance of him should be mixed with wine. For as Christ says, I am the true vine, it follows that the blood of Christ is wine, not water, and the cup cannot appear to contain his blood by which we are redeemed and quickened if the wine be absent. For by the wine is the blood of Christ typified, that blood which is foreshadowed and proclaimed in all the types and declarations of Scripture. For we find that in the book of Genesis this very circumstance in regard to the sacrament is foreshadowed, and our Lord's sufferings typically set forth. In the case of Noah, when he drank wine and was drunken and was uncovered within his tent, and his nakedness was exposed by his second son, and was carefully hidden by his older and his younger sons, it is not necessary to mention the other circumstances in detail, as it is only necessary to observe this point that Noah foreshadowing the future reality drank not water, but wine, and thus showed forth our Lord's passion. In the same way we see the sacrament of the Lord's sufferer prefigured in the case of Melchizedek, the priest, according to the testimony of the Holy Scriptures, where it says, And Melchizedek, king of Salem, brought forth bread and wine, and he was the priest of the Most High God, and he blessed Abraham. Now that Melchizedek was a type of Christ, the Holy Spirit declares in the Psalms, where the father addressing the son says, Thou art a priest forever after the order of Melchizedek. In this passage and in all of the letter that follows, the subdued style is maintained, as the reader may easily satisfy himself. 46. Saint Ambrose also, though dealing with a question of very great importance, the equality of the Holy Spirit with the father and the son, employs the subdued style, because the object he has in view demands not beauty addiction, nor the swaying of the mind by the stir of emotion, but facts and proofs. Accordingly, in the introduction to his work we find the following passage among others. When Gideon was startled by the message he had heard from God, that though thousands of the people failed, yet through one man God would deliver his people from their enemies, he brought forth a kit of the goats, and by direction of the angel laid it with unleavened cakes upon a rock, and poured the broth over it, and as soon as the angel of God touched it with the end of the staff that was in his hand, there rose up fire out of the rock and consumed the offering. Now this sign seems to indicate that the rock was a type of the body of Christ, for it is written, they drank of that spiritual rock that followed them, and that rock was Christ. This of course referring not to Christ's divine nature, but to his flesh, whose ever flowing fountain of blood has ever satisfied the hearts of his thirsting people. And so it was at that time declared in a mystery that the Lord Jesus, when crucified, should abolish in his flesh the sins of the whole world, in not their guilty acts merely, but the evil lusts of their hearts. For the kid's flesh refers to the guilt of the outward act, the broth to the allurement of lust within, as it is written, in the mixed multitude that was among them fell allusting. And the children of Israel also left again and said, who shall give us flesh to eat? When the angel then stretched out his staff and touched the rock, and fire rose out of it, this was a sign that our Lord's flesh, filled with the Spirit of God, should burn up all the sins of the human race. Once also the Lord says, I am come to send fire on the earth, and in the same style he pursues the subject. Devoting himself chiefly to proving and enforcing his point. 47. An example of the temperate style is the celebrated inconium on virginity from Cyprian. Now our discourse addresses itself to the virgins, who as they are the objects of higher honor, are also the objects of greater care. These are the flower on the tree of the church, the glory and ornament of spiritual grace, the joy of honor and praise, the work unbroken and unblemished, the image of God answering to the holiness of the Lord, the brighter portion of the flock of Christ, the glorious fruitfulness of their mother, the church rejoices in them, and in them flourishes more abundantly, and in proportion as bright virginity adds to her numbers, in the same proportion does the mother's joy increase. And at another place in the end of the epistle, as we have borne, he says, the image of the earthly, we shall also bear the image of the heavenly. Virginity bears this image, integrity bears it, holiness and truth bear it, they bear it who are mindful of the chastening of the Lord, who observe justice and piety, who are strong in faith, humble in fear, steadfast in the endurance of suffering, meek in the endurance of injury, ready to pity of one mind and of one heart in brotherly peace. In every one of these things ought ye holy virgins to observe, to cherish and fulfill, who having hearts at leisure for God and for Christ, and having chosen the greater and better part, lead and point the way to the Lord, to whom you have pledged your vows. Ye who are advanced in age, exercise control over the younger. Ye who are younger, wait upon the elders and encourage your equals, stir up one another by mutual exhortations, provoke one another to glory by emulous examples of virtue. Endure bravely, advance in spirituality, finish your course with joy, only be mindful of us when your virginity shall begin to reap its reward of honor. Forty-eight, Ambrose also uses the temperate and ornamented style when he is holding out before virgins who have made their profession a model for their imitation and says, she was a virgin not in body alone but also in mind, not mingling the purity of her affections with any dross of hypocrisy, serious in speech, prudent in disposition, sparing of words, delighting in study, not placing her confidence in uncertain riches but in the prayer of the poor, diligent in labor, reverent in word, accustomed to look to God not man as the guide of her conscience, injuring no one, wishing well to all, dutiful to her elders, not envious of her equals, avoiding boastfulness, following reason, loving virtue. When did she wound her parents even with a look? When did she quarrel with her neighbors? When did she spurn the humble, laugh at the weak, or shun the indigent? She is accustomed to visit only those haunts of men that pity would not blush for. Nor modesty pass by. There is nothing haughty in her eyes, nothing bold in her words, nothing wanton in her gestures. Her bearing is not voluptuous, nor her gait too free, nor her voice petulant, so that her outward appearance is an image of her mind and a picture of purity. For a good house ought to be known for such at the very threshold, and show at the very entrance that there is no dark recess within, as the light of a lamp set inside sheds its radiance on the outside. Why need I detail her sparingness in food, her superabundance in duty, the one falling beneath the demands of nature, the other rising above its powers? The latter has no intervals of intermission, the former doubles the days by fasting, when the desire for refreshment does arise, it is satisfied with food such as will support life, but not minister to appetite. Now I have cited these latter passages as examples of the temperate style because their purpose is not to induce those who have not yet devoted themselves to take the vows of virginity, but to show of what character those who have taken vows ought to be. To prevail on anyone to take a step of such nature in a so great importance requires that the mind should be excited and set on fire by the majestic style. Cyprian the martyr, however, did not write about the duty of taking up the profession of virginity, but about the dress and deportment of virgins. Yet the great bishop urges them to their duty, even in these respects, by the power of a majestic eloquence. 49. But I shall select examples of the majestic style from their treatment of a subject which both of them have touched. Both have denounced the woman who color or rather discolor their faces with paint. And the first in dealing with this topic says, suppose a painter should depict in colors that rival natures, the features in form and complexion of some man, and that when the portrait had been finished with consummate art, another painter should put his hand over it, as if to improve by his superior skill the painting already completed. Surely the first artist would feel deeply insulted, and his indignation would be justly roused. Does thou then think that thou wilt carry off with impunity, solidacious and active wickedness, such an insult to God, the great artificer? For granting that thou art not in modest and mild behavior towards men, that thou art not polluted and bind by these meritricious deceits. Yet in corrupting and violating what is God's, thou provost thyself worse than an adulterous. The fact that thou considerest thyself adorned and beautified by such arts is an impeachment of God's handiwork, and a violation of truth. Listen to the warning voice of the apostle. Purge out the old leaven, that ye may be a new lump, as ye are unleavened, for even Christ our Passover is sacrificed for us. Therefore let us keep the feast, not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth. Now can sincerity and truth continue to exist when what is sincere is polluted, and what is true is changed by meritricious coloring and the deceptions of quackery into a lie. Thy Lord says, Thou canst not make one hair white or black, and dost thou wish to have greater power, so as to bring to naught the words of thy Lord? With rash in sacrilegious hand thou wouldst feign change the color of thy hair. I would that with a prophetic look to the future thou shouldst die at the color of flame. It would be too long to quote all that follows. Fifty. Ambrose again, in vain against such practices, says, hence arise these incentives to vice, that women and their fear that they may not prove attractive to men, paint their faces with carefully chosen colors, and then from stains on their features go on to stains on their chastity. What follow ye it is to change the features of nature into those of a painting, and from fear of incurring their husbands disapproval, to proclaim openly that they have incurred their own, for the woman who desires to alter her natural appearance pronounces condemnation on herself, and her eager endeavors to please another prove that she has been displeasing to herself. And what testimony to thine ugliness can we find, O woman, that is more unquestionable than thine own, when thou art afraid to show thyself? If thou art comely, why dost thou hide thy comeliness? If thou art plain, why dost thou lyingly pretend to be beautiful, when thou canst not enjoy the pleasures of the lie, either in thine own consciousness or in that of another? For he loves another woman, thou desirest to please another man, and thou art angry if he love another, though he is taught adultery in thee. Thou art the evil prompt truce of thine own injury, for even the woman who has been the victim of a panda shrinks from acting the panda's part, and though she be vile it is herself she sins against, and not another. The crime of adultery is almost more tolerable than thine, for adultery tampers with modesty, but thou with nature. It is sufficiently clear, I think, that this elegance calls passionately upon women to avoid tampering with their appearance by deceitful arts, and cultivate modesty and fear. Accordingly, we notice that the style is neither subdued nor temperate, but majestic throughout. Now, in these two authors whom I have selected as specimens of the rest, and in other ecclesiastical writers who speak the truth and speak it well, speak it, that is, judiciously, pointedly, and with beauty and power of expression, many examples may be found of the three styles of speech scattered throughout their various writings and discourses, and the diligent student, made by assiduous reading, intermingled with practice on his own part, become thoroughly imbued with them all. Chapter 22. The necessity of variety in style But we are not to suppose that it is against rule to mingle those various styles. On the contrary, every variety of style should be introduced so far as is consistent with good taste. For when we keep monotonously to one style, we fail to retain the hearer's attention, but when we pass from one style to another, the discourse goes off more gracefully, even though it extends to greater length. Each separate style, again, has varieties of its own which prevent the hearer's attention from cooling or becoming languid. We can bear the subdued style, however, longer without variety than the majestic style. For the mental emotion which it is necessary to stir up in order to carry the hearer's feelings with us, when once it has been sufficiently excited, the higher the pitch to which it is raised can be maintained the shorter time. And therefore we must be on our guard, lest in striving to carry to a higher point, the emotion we have excited, we rather lose what we have already gained. But after the interposition of matter that we have to treat in a quieter style, we can return with good effect to that which must be treated forcibly, thus making the tide of eloquence to ebb and flow like the sea. It follows from this that the majestic style, if it is to be long continued, ought not to be unvaried, but should alternate at intervals with the other styles. The speech or writing as a whole, however, being referred to that style which is the prevailing one. Chapter 23. How the various styles should be mingled. Now it is a matter of importance to determine what style should be alternated with what other, and the places where it is necessary that any particular style should be used. In the majestic style, for instance, it is always or almost always desirable that the introduction should be temperate. And the speaker has it in his discretion to use the subdued style, even where the majestic would be allowable, in order that the majestic, when it is used, may be the more majestic by comparison, and may, as it were, shine out with greater brilliance from the dark background. Again, whatever may be the style of the speech or writing, when knotty questions turn up for solution, accuracy of distinction is required, and this naturally demands the subdued style. And accordingly, this style must be used in alternation with the other two styles, whenever questions of that sort turn up. Just as we must use the temperate style, no matter what may be the general tone of the discourse, whenever praise or blame is to be given without any ulterior reference to the condemnation or acquittal of any one, or to obtaining the concurrence of any one in a course of action. In the majestic style, then, and in the quiet likewise, both the other two styles occasionally find place. The temperate style, on the other hand, not indeed always, but occasionally needs the quiet style. For example, when, as I have said, a knotty question comes up to be settled, or when some points that are susceptible of ornament are left unadorned and expressed in the quiet style, in order to give greater effect to certain exuberances, as they may be called, of ornament. But the temperate style never needs the aid of the majestic, for its object is to gratify never to excite the mind. Chapter 24. The effects produced by the majestic style If frequent evaim and applause follows a speaker, we are not to suppose on that account that he is speaking in the majestic style, for this effect is often produced both by the accurate distinctions of the quiet style and by the beauties of the temperate. The majestic style, on the other hand, frequently silences the audience by its impressiveness, but calls forth their tears. For example, when at Cesare in Mauritania I was dissuading the people from that civil, or worse than civil, war, which they called Caterva, for it was not fellow citizens merely but neighbors, brothers, fathers and sons even, who divided into two factions and armed with stones, fought annually at a certain season of the year for several days continuously, every one killing whomsoever he could. I strove with all the vehemence of speech that I could command to root out and drive from their hearts and lives an evil so cruel and inveterate. It was not, however, when I heard their applause, but when I saw their tears that I thought I had produced an effect. For the applause showed that they were instructed and delighted, but the tears that they were subdued. And when I saw their tears I was confident, even before the event proved it, that this horrible and barbarous custom, which had been handed down to them from their fathers and their ancestors of generations long gone by, and which, like an enemy was besieging their hearts, or rather had complete possession of them, was overthrown. And immediately that my sermon was finished I called upon them with heart and voice to give praise and thanks to God. And lo, with the blessing of Christ, it is now eight years or more since anything of the sort was attempted there. In many other cases besides, I have observed that men show the effect made on them by the powerful eloquence of a wise man, not by clamorous applause so much as by groans, sometimes even by tears, finally by change of life. The quiet style too has made a change in many, but it was to teach them what they were ignorant of, or to persuade them of what they thought incredible, not to make them do what they knew they ought to do, but were unwilling to do. To break down hardness of this sort, speech needs to be vehement. Praise and censure too, when they are eloquently expressed, even in the temperate style, produce such an effect on some, that they are not only pleased with the eloquence of the incomiums and censures, but are led to live so as themselves to deserve praise, and to avoid living so as to incur a blame. But no one would say that all who are thus delighted change their habits in consequence, whereas all who are moved by the majestic style act accordingly, and all who are taught by the quiet style know or believe a truth which they were previously ignorant of. Chapter 25. How the temperate style is to be used From all this we may conclude, that the end arrived at by the two styles last mentioned, is the one which it is most essential for those who aspire to speak with wisdom and eloquence to secure. On the other hand, what the temperate style properly aims at, namely to please by beauty of expression, is not in itself an adequate end. But when what we have to say is good and useful, and when the hearers are both acquainted with it and favorably disposed towards it, so that it is not necessary either to instruct or persuade them, beauty of style may have its influence in securing their prometer compliance, or in making them adhere to it more tenaciously. For as the function of all eloquence, whichever of these three forms it may assume, is to speak persuasively, and its object is to persuade an eloquent man will speak persuasively, whatever style he may adopt, but unless he succeeds in persuading, his eloquence has not secured its object. Now in the subdued style, he persuades his hearers that what he says is true. In the majestic style, he persuades them to do what they are aware they ought to do, but do not. In the temperate style, he persuades them that his speech is elegant and ordnate. But what use is there in attaining such an object as this last? They may desire it who are vain of their eloquence and make a boast of tenagerics, and such like performances, where the object is not to instruct the hearer or to persuade him to any course of action, but merely to give him pleasure. We, however, ought to make that end subordinate to another, namely the effecting by this style of eloquence what we aim at effecting when we use the majestic style. For we may, by the use of this style, persuade men to cultivate good habits and give up evil ones, if they are not so hardened as to need the vehement style, or if they have already begun a good course, we may induce them to pursue it more zealously, and to persevere in it with constancy. Accordingly, even in the temperate style, we must use beauty of expression, not for ostentation, but for wise ends, not contending ourselves merely with pleasing the hearer, but rather seeking to aid him in the pursuit of the good end which we hold out before him. Chapter 26 In every style the orator should aim at perspicuity, beauty, and persuasiveness. Now, in regard to the three conditions I laid down a little while ago, as necessary to be fulfilled by anyone who wishes to speak with wisdom and eloquence, namely perspicuity, beauty of style, and persuasive power, we are not to understand that these three qualities attach themselves respectively to the three several styles of speech, one to each, so that perspicuity is a merit peculiar to the subdued style, beauty to the temperate, and persuasive power to the majestic. On the contrary, all speech whatever its style ought constantly to aim at, and as far as possible to display, all these three merits. For we do not like even what we say in the subdued style to Paul upon the hearer, and therefore we would be listened to, not with intelligence merely, but with pleasure as well. Again, why do we enforce what we teach by divine testimony, except that we wish to carry the hearer with us, that is, to compel his assent by calling in the assistance of him of whom it is said, thy testimonies are very sure. And when anyone narrates a story, even in the subdued style, what does he wish but to be believed? But who will listen to him if he do not arrest attention by some beauty of style? And if he be not intelligible, is it not plain that he can neither give pleasure nor enforce conviction? The subdued style, again in its own naked simplicity, when it unravels questions of very great difficulty, and throws an unexpected light upon them, when it warms out and brings to light some very acute observations from a quarter whence nothing was expected, when it seizes upon and exposes the falsity of an opposing opinion, which seemed at its first statement to be unassailable, especially when all this is accompanied by a natural, un-sought grace of expression, and by a rhythm and balance of style which is not ostentatiously up-truded, but seems rather to be called forth by the nature of the subject, this style, so used, frequently calls forth applause so great that one can hardly believe it to be the subdued style. For the fact that it comes forth without either ornament or defense, and offers battle in its own naked simplicity, does not hinder it from crushing its adversary by weight of nerve and muscle, and overwhelming and destroying the falsehood that opposes it by the mere strength of its own right arm. How explain the frequent and vehement applause that waits upon men who speak thus except by the pleasure that truth so irresistibly established, and so victoriously defended, naturally affords? Wherefore the Christian teacher and speaker ought, when he uses a subdued style, to endeavor not only to be clear and intelligible, but to give pleasure and to bring home conviction to the hearer? Eloquence of the temperate style, also, must, in the case of the Christian orator, be neither altogether without ornament nor unsuitably adorned, nor is it to make the giving of pleasure its sole aim, which is all it professes to accomplish in the hands of others. But in its encomiums and censures it should aim at inducing the hearer to strive after or hold more firmly by what it praises, and to avoid or renounce what it condemns. On the other hand, without a perspicuity this style cannot give pleasure, and so the three qualities, perspicuity, beauty and persuasiveness, are to be sought in this style also, beauty, of course, being its primary object. Again, when it becomes necessary to stir and sway the hearer's mind by the majestic style, and this is always necessary when he admits that what you say is both true and agreeable, and yet is unwilling to act accordingly, you must, of course, speak in the majestic style. But who can be moved if he does not understand what is said, and who will stay to listen if he receives no pleasure? Wherefore, in this style too, when an obdurate heart is to be persuaded to obedience, you must speak so as to be both intelligible and pleasing, if you would be hurt with a submissive mind. End of Section 23. Section 24 of Unchristian Doctrine. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Unchristian Doctrine by Augustine of Hippo. Translated by J. F. Shaw. Section 24. Book 4. Chapter 27. The man whose life is in harmony with his teachings will teach with greater effect. But whatever may be the majesty of the style, the life of the speaker will count for more in securing the hearer's compliance. The man who speaks wisely and eloquently, but lives wickedly, may it is true instruct many who are anxious to learn. Though, as it is written, he is unprofitable to himself. Wherefore also the apostle says, whether in pretense or in truth Christ is preached. Now Christ is the truth. Yet we see the truth can be preached, though not in truth. That is, what is right and true in itself may be preached by a man of perverse and deceitful mind. And thus it is that Jesus Christ is preached by those who seek their own, and not the teachings that are Jesus Christ. But since true believers obey the voice not of any man, but of the Lord himself who says, all therefore whosoever they bid you observe, that observe and do. But do not ye after their works, for they say and do not. Therefore it is that men who themselves lead unprofitable lives are heard with profit by others. For though they seek their own objects, they do not dare to teach their own doctrines, sitting as they do in the high places of ecclesiastical authority, which is established on sound doctrine. Wherefore our Lord himself, before saying what I have just quoted about men of this stand, made this observation, the scribes in the Pharisees sit in Moses' seat. The seat they occupied then, which was not theirs but Moses, compelled them to say what was good, though they did what was evil. And so they followed their own course in their lives, but were prevented by the seat they occupied, which belonged to another from preaching their own doctrines. Now these men do good to many by preaching what they themselves do not perform, but they would do good to very many more if they lived as they preach. For there are numbers who seek an excuse for their own evil lives in comparing the teaching with the conduct of their instructors, and who say in their hearts or even go a little further and say with their lips, why do you not do yourself what you bid me do? And thus they cease to listen with submission to a man who does not listen to himself, and in despising the preacher they learn to despise the word that is preached. Wherefore the apostle writing to Timothy after telling him, let no man despise thy youth adds immediately the course by which he would avoid contempt. But be thou an example of the believers in word and conversation, in charity and spirit, in faith, in purity. Chapter 28. Truth is more important than expression, what is meant by strife about words. Such a teacher, as is here described, may, to secure compliance, speak not only quietly and temporarily, but even vehemently, without any breach of modesty because his life protects him against contempt. For while he pursues an upright life, he takes care to maintain a good reputation as well, providing things honest in the sight of God and men, fearing God and caring for men. In his very speech, even he prefers to please by matter rather than by words, thinks that a thing is well said in proportion as it is true in fact, and that a teacher should govern his words, not let the words govern him. This is what the apostle says, not with wisdom of words, lest the cross of Christ should be made of none effect. To the same effect also is what he says to Timothy, charging them before the Lord that they strive not about words to no profit, but to the subverting of the hearers. Now this does not mean that when adversaries oppose the truth, we are to say nothing in defense of the truth. For where, then, would be what he says when he is describing the sort of man a bishop ought to be, that he may be able, by sound doctrine, both to exhort and convince the gainsayers. To strive about words is not to be careful about the way to overcome error by truth, but to be anxious that your mode of expression should be preferred to that of another. The man who does not strive about words, whether he speak quietly, temporarily, or vehemently, uses words with no other purpose than to make the truth plain, pleasing and effective. For not even love itself, which is the end of the commandment and the fulfilling of the law, can be rightly exercised unless the objects of love are true and not false. For as a man with a comely body, but an ill conditioned mind is a more painful object than if his body too were deformed. So men who teach lies are more pitiable if they happen to be eloquent in speech. To speak eloquently, then, and wisely as well, is just to express truths which it is expedient to teach in fit and proper words, words which in the subdued style are adequate, in the temperate, elegant, and in the majestic, forcible. But the man who cannot speak both eloquently and wisely should speak wisely about eloquence, rather than eloquently about wisdom. Chapter 29 It is permissible for a preacher to deliver to the people what has been written by a more eloquent man than himself. If, however, he cannot do even this, let his life be such, as shall not only secure a reward for himself, but afford an example to others, and let his manner of living be an eloquent sermon in itself. There are indeed some men who have good delivery, but cannot compose anything to deliver. Now, if such men take what has been written with wisdom and eloquence by others and commit it to memory, and deliver it to the people, they cannot be blamed, supposing them to do it without deception. For in this way many become preachers of the truth, which is certainly desirable, and yet not many teachers, for all deliver the discourse which one real teacher has composed, and there are no divisions among them. Nor are such men to be alarmed by the words of Jeremiah the prophet, through whom God denounces those who steal his words, everyone from his neighbor. For those who steal, take what does not belong to them, but the word of God belongs to all who obey it. And it is the man who speaks well, but lives badly, who really takes the words that belong to another. For the good things, he says, seem to be the result of his own thought, and yet they have nothing in common with his manner of life. And so God has said that they steal his words, who would appear good by speaking God's words, but are in fact bad as they follow their own ways. And if you look closely into the matter, it is not really themselves who say the good things they say, for how can they say in words what they deny in deeds? It is not for nothing that the apostle says of such men, they profess that they know God, but in works they deny him. In one sense then, they do say the things, and in another sense they do not say them. For both these statements must be true, both being made by him who is the truth. Speaking of such men in one place, he says, whatsoever they bid you observe, that observe and do, but do not ye after their works, that is to say, what ye hear from their lips, that do, what ye see in their lives, that do ye not, for they say and do not. And so, though they do not, yet they say. But in another place, operating such men, he says, oh generation of vipers, how can ye being evil speak good things? And from this it would appear that even what they say, when they say what is good, it is not themselves who say, for in will indeed they deny what they say. Hence it happens that a wicked man who is eloquent may compose a discourse in which the truth is set forth to be delivered by a good man who is not eloquent. And when this takes place, the former draws from himself what does not belong to him, and the latter receives from another what really belongs to himself. But when true believers render this service to true believers, both already speak what is their own, for God is theirs, to whom belongs all that they say. And even those who could not compose what they say, make it their own by composing their lives in harmony with it. Chapter 30. The preacher should commence his discourse with prayer to God. But whether a man is going to address the people, or to dictate what others will deliver or read to the people, he ought to pray God to put into his mouth a suitable discourse. For if Queen Esther prayed, when she was about to speak to the king, touching the temporal welfare of her race, that God would fit words into her mouth, how much more ought he to pray for the same blessing, who labors in word and doctrine for eternal welfare of men. Those again, who are to deliver what others compose for them all, before they receive their discourse, to pray for those who are preparing it. And when they have received it, they ought to pray both that they themselves may deliver it well, and that those whom they address it may give ear. And when the discourse has a happy issue, they ought to render thanks to him from who they know such blessings come, and that all praise may be his. In whose hand are both we in our words? Chapter 31. Apology for the length of the work. This book is extended to a greater length than I expected or desired. But the reader here, who finds pleasure in it, will not think it long. He who thinks it long, but is anxious to know its contents, may read it in parts. He who does not care to be acquainted with it, need not complain of the length. I, however, give thanks to God, that with what little ability I possess, I have in these four books driven to depict not the sort of man I am myself, for my defects are very many, but the sort of man he ought to be, who desires to labor and sound, that is, in Christian doctrine. Not for his own instruction only, but for that of others also. End of Book 4. End of Unchristian Doctrine by Augustine of Hippo, translated by J. F. Shaw.