 Welcome back. Having discussed the notions of tense, aspect and voice in the e-lectures, the function of the verb Part 1 and Part 2, we will now look at the remaining functional aspects in this final e-lecture of the series. That is, we will talk about mood and modality. Let us start with the discussion of mood. The term mood is traditionally restricted to a category expressed in verbal morphology. In Latin, for example, we have three moods. The indicative mood, you love. The subjunctive mood, ames, you may love. And the imperative mood, ama, love. However, the category mood is not found in all languages. In English, only a rudimentary system of mood is left. The indicative mood, normally expressed by the base form of the verb, and the subjunctive mood, which is expressed by a variant of this. We will look at this in a second. So let's start with the discussion of the indicative mood in present-day English. The unmarked mood in English is the indicative mood. Its formal realisation, leaving aside complex verb groups, is that of the standard inflectional paradigm for tense. That is, the present tense, which is formed by means of affixation, either zero affixation, or you add the third person singular s as in love-take-go versus loves-takes-and-goes. And then in the past tense, which is formed by means of affixation, loved-and-hit-hit-zero affixation, by means of base change, such as took-and-met, and even by means of subpletive forms as in go versus went. In present-day English, the indicative mood is used in the majority of constructions. The distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive mood is confined to those verb forms where inflectional differences can be found. For example, the third person singular present tense forms of be. Compare the following two sentences. God saves our lives versus God save the queen. The mere absence of the third person singular inflectional marker in the second example, God save the queen, which by the way is, as you all know, part of the British national anthem. The absence of the third person singular marker turns its verb into the subjunctive form. The subjunctive in present-day English is generally an optional and stylistically marked variant of other constructions. It is realized, likely imperative, by the base form of the verb. Thus, apart from the third person singular present tense and the indicative forms of be, there is no difference between subjunctive and indicative forms. The most common occurrence of the subjunctive can be found in that clauses. Here is an example. The so-called mandative subjunctive. They propose that Smith be elected. Now, this subjunctive can be used with any verb if the subordinate clause is introduced by an expression of demand, recommendation, proposal, etc. Thus, the following elements are commonly used to introduce a mandative subjunctive. And here are some examples, verbs for example. We decided that, we insisted that, we ordered that Smith be elected. Or adjectives such as, it is advisable or desirable that Smith be elected. Or even nouns, we took the decision that Smith be elected and so on and so forth. Well, and then there is the formulaic subjunctive, as in come what may, and the part of the national anthem, God save the queen. Now, the formulaic subjunctive can be found in independent clauses in so-called formulaic expressions. These are expressions which are contextually rather restricted. And then after verbs like wish or in adverbial clauses introduced by if, as if, as though, though, the subjunctive is realized as so-called irrealis. And it is restricted to the use of were. So here we have cases such as, if I were you, I wish the journey were over. Note that in speech, were is often replaced by the indicative form was. Well, so much for the discussion of mood. Let's now continue with modality. In present day English, three kinds of modal meaning or modality can be distinguished. Let's illustrate these using the modal auxiliary can. Now here is the first interpretation, the so-called dynamic or factual modality. He can do a handstand. That is, he is able to do a handstand. We then have a deontic modality, which is a mode denoting how things ought to be. Can you pass the salt, please? Is a good example of this. And the final modality that can be found is the so-called epistemic modality. He can't be ill, can he? Where a mode of knowing is applied to in order to interpret the meaning of the modal verb. All three kinds of modality, which we will discuss in detail in a second, are also commonly expressed by other means than modal auxiliaries. Let's look at them. For example, if we take the case of dynamic necessity, as in we must start early, we can find alternatives in using verbs. The verb necessitate, for example, our work necessitates an early start. Or we have the option of using an adjective. An early start is necessary. Adverbs can also occur in such context necessarily our work starts early. And last but not least, we can choose nouns. There is the necessity to start early. The central means to express the different kinds of modality in present day English, however, are the modal verbs. Let's illustrate how they can express the three types of modality and let's start with the dynamic modality. The dynamic modality concerns the properties and dispositions of persons referred to in the clause, especially by the subject. In our first example, Usain, where we mean Usain Bolt of course, Usain can run faster than anyone else. In this first example, can is used to express the ability. You can also replace it by Usain is able to run faster. The dynamic interpretation of will in I asked Jack to leave, but he won't here in the negative interpretation. The dynamic interpretation of will in this example shows that Jack lacks willingness. Well, and here I have a third example. You may come in now. Now in replacing may in this example by be allowed to, we already have the meaning of dynamic may allowance. By the way, in earlier periods of English, modal auxiliaries could occur without verbal compliments. However, only in this dynamic use. Here is an example from Shakespeare, the taming of the shrew. There, there, Hortensio, will you any wave? Where will is of course the modal verb and there's no verbal compliment. Today, modal verbs must have a verbal compliment. The second type of modality is the so-called deontic modality. The term deontic comes from Greek where the stem deon means duty, obligation, necessity. Thus, deontic modality typically has to do with notions such as obligation and permission or in combination with negation with prohibition. Again, let's look at some examples. Here's the first. You can come here if you wish. Now this is a typical example of giving permission. And if you try to replace, you can by be able to, well, you will see it is impossible here. You are able to come here if you wish is of course not giving permission. In the second case, the case of can you pass me the sword please? We already discussed this. This is a typical example of a request. Example number three, you must come here at once. Well, here we are confronted with the deontic interpretation of strong obligation. And finally, you may want to solve the problem later. Well, here we have an interpretation or the deontic interpretation of possibility. Using speech act terminology, the most important types of deontic modality appear to be commissives and directives. That is speech acts where we commit ourselves to do something and speech acts where we try to get our hearer to do things. Depending on the modal verb involved, the deontic modality may be defined as strong as in the case of must strong obligation. You must come here at once or weak. You may want to solve the problem later. Let's finish with epistemic modality. The term epistemic is derived from the Greek word epistemicos, meaning understanding or knowledge. Thus epistemic modality shows the status of the speaker's understanding or knowledge, including both. His own judgments and the kind of warrant he has for what he says. Here are some examples. He may be ill is of course a possibility, an epistemic possibility. He is playing tennis, so he must be better. So because he plays tennis, we know it is almost a necessity, possibility or necessity that his state is better than his previous state. Or take example number three. He can't have been ill. Again, a similar interpretation, possibility and necessity. And our last example, that will be the postman. Well, this is an epistemic interpretation of probability. So much for modality. Let's summarize. In this e-lecture we discuss two additional functions of the verb. Mood and modality. Mood is realized by a particular verb form. Modality is realized syntactically in present day English, that is, by means of a complex verb group with a particular modal verb in it. However, we have seen that alternative options such as the use of adverbs or adjectives, nouns and verbs are also possible. Well, this is the final e-lecture belonging to the series of e-lectures where we dealt with the central functional aspects of the verb. So, I hope you've seen them all. Thank you very much for your attention.