 There are a lot of different definitions of structural transformation, but in my work with Danny Rodrick and my more recent work with Ken Hartgen, when we talk about structural transformation, what we really mean is shifts in an shifts in an economy of workers out of low productivity activities and into higher productivity activities. In other words, changes in employment shares. And the reason why we talk about changes in employment shares as opposed to changes in, for example, GDP shares is because changes in GDP shares are much more volatile and, you know, subject to changes in things like commodity prices, so they can move around a lot and not really reflect changes in the underlying structure of an economy. Whereas changes in employment shares tend, as you can imagine, people moving out of one sector, for example, agriculture and into another sector, such as services or skilled and unskilled manual labor, requires is much more of a significant change for an economy and for the people involved. In the original work I did with Danny Rodrick in 2011, we studied nine countries in Africa between the period 1990 and 2005. And those results indicated that in Africa, as well as in Latin America, workers were actually moving from relatively high productivity activities back to agriculture. And that was very surprising for Africa, where we would expect to see, you know, poorer people in rural areas moving into cities and presumably higher productivity and better paying activities. It turns out, though, that that time period that we chose, 1990 to 2005, and by the way, it was partially, you know, due to data constraints that we chose that period, that time period confounds two important periods in Africa's recent economic history. So the 1990s, during the 1990s, many countries in Africa were still experiencing the consequences of structural adjustment. And a case in point which I like to bring up is Zambia, because it's so clear and it's been written about extensively in a paper by one of my colleagues at IFP, James Thurlow. There, you did really see deindustrialization with the downsizing of the copper sector. So you actually saw workers moving out of cities back to agriculture. Again, surprising, but when you put it in the context of structural adjustment and downsizing of public sector enterprises, it's not that surprising. So it turns out that when you, and it turns out that when you split the data between 19, when you divided up 1990 to 2000 and then 2000 onward, you see that from 2000 onward there has been some positive structural change in Africa. In other words, there has been movement out of agriculture into services and a little bit into manufacturing. The trend is positive. In other words, the activities that people are moving towards are more productive and higher paying or allow people to earn a better standard of living. I want to be slightly cautious and being too overly optimistic about the scenario because a lot of what we do see is people moving into services. And albeit people are earning a better living that way, that expansion in the service sector may be less sustainable if the recent growth is a result of high commodity prices. I can't, I don't say that for sure, but it's just, it's an open question. Historically manufacturing, at least in the industrialized world, offers their potential for knowledge spillovers and externalities and interactions with the rest of the world. It has offered relatively high paying jobs with benefits for large numbers of relatively low skilled workers. The kinds of service sector jobs that offer benefits and require, tend to require much higher skills than the average African country has at this point in time. So the kinds of services we're seeing expand also include things like selling packages of cigarettes or cigarettes, one cigarette at a time on the street. So yes, Danny Roger has emphasized manufacturing and although I don't know how much I want to get into it here, but he is slowing down a little bit on that because in his most recent work that he did for me summarizing a bunch of papers that we put together on structural change for World Bank Project, he is saying now that we need, we see that it's much harder for countries to achieve this rapid growth through rapid structural change the way we saw it for example in China, precisely because the international competition has become so much tougher. Ethiopia is a very interesting example. One thing that I'm aware of in Ethiopia is investment by the Chinese in the leather industry and they're investing in other areas as well, but the leather industry is fascinating because it has the potential to spill over to the very poorest people in Ethiopia. So the largest firm I know of is called Huajian and they've invested in a large shoe manufacturing company and they're currently employing I think a little over 2,000 Ethiopian workers. They export designer shoes for the likes of Tommy Hilfiger and the names of the other brands slips me at the moment, but I know they're exporting to Europe and the United States and if you look at the pictures of the assembly line in Ethiopia, you really would not guess that it's Ethiopia, that the factory is very modern, looks very clean, it's really remarkable and so directly that investment by the Chinese has created jobs for Ethiopians and there is also investment by the Chinese in leather tanning in Ethiopia and then there's the whole livestock sector. Most people are unaware that Ethiopia has some of the highest quality leather in the world. Counting livestock is a tricky practice. Africans who are listening to me will understand that much better than some others, but according to some records, Ethiopia has the 7th largest livestock population in the world and the quality of that leather is extremely high, so great that other countries are fighting to get access to that leather, including China and Vietnam. So that is a big part of what lured the Chinese to Ethiopia, but you have millions of Ethiopians owning livestock and as of yet, the livestock, if we call it an industry, the livestock industry to date in Ethiopia is not well organized and you could have producers associations in the livestock sector, there could be all kinds of improvements in the livestock sector to improve the health of the cattle, the quality of the skins that would directly benefit owners of livestock in Ethiopia. That has yet to be realized, but that is the way things are organized in China, for example. So the potential linkages from this Chinese investment in the shoe industry in Ethiopia are enormous. The example that I'm most familiar with in Ghana that I like the most is a company called Blue Skies. It's a similar situation to the situation in Ethiopia, but here they're focusing on fruits. So Blue Skies is a company that very much has a philosophy of adding value at source. So they source all of their mangoes and pineapples and papaya that they cut and export in packages to the European market, they source in Ghana. So they don't export any whole fruit. They have a factory located about, I want to say 50, 60 kilometers outside of Accra. They hire a little over between 1,000 and 2,000 workers in Ghana. I was there actually visiting the factory and I saw people lining up all the way to the end of the driveway, which is very long, applying for jobs to work in this factory. So they directly employ people in the factory, but they also have outreach to farmers. So I met with the man who actually goes around and I actually had the opportunity to visit one of the pineapple farms. They provide technical support to the farmers. They help the farmers with quality control and they have actually, they didn't in the past, but they now do have contracts with the farmers. So the farmers have some certainty over where they're going to be able to sell their produce. So it's a terrific example of adding value at source and of a large firm that has the marketing capability and contacts in Europe, creating these opportunities for relatively small farmers in Ghana. So the farmers that Blue Skies work with, they range in their size of the farms range in size, I think from three hectares all the way up to maybe 100 hectares. And they also provide financing to some of the farmers. So they've helped one of the guys I met, his name is Billy, this farmer he originally started with around five hectares. And now he has 25 hectares. And he's planning to expand further with the help of Blue Skies. African Center for Economic Transformation, which is based in Accra, Ghana, they are working, they're working on writing up a lot of these kinds of examples. And they will presenting, they will be presenting much of their work at a conference that I'm organizing in Nairobi, December 5th and 6th of 2013. So there are all kinds of examples like this across Africa.