 Section 5 of the Discourse on Inequality by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. This reading is by Eric Jonas. A Discourse upon the Origin and the Foundation of the Inequality among Mankind by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Chapter 2, Section 1. The first man, who, after enclosing a piece of ground, took it into his head to say, this is mine, and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society. How many crimes, how many wars, how many murders, how many misfortunes and horrors would that man have saved the human species, who, pulling up the stakes or filling up the ditches, should have cried to his fellows, be sure not to listen to this impostor? You are lost, if you forget that the fruits of the earth belong equally to us all, and the earth itself to nobody. But it is highly probable that things were now come to such a pass that they could not continue much longer in the same way. For as this idea of property depends on several prior ideas which could only spring up gradually, one after another, it was not formed all at once in the human mind. Men must have made great progress, they must have acquired a great stock of industry and knowledge and transmitted and increased it from age to age before they could arrive at this last term of the state of nature. Let us therefore take up things a little higher and collect into one point of view and in their most natural order, this slow succession of events and mental improvements. The first sentiment of man was that of his existence, his first care that of preserving it. The productions of the earth yielded him all the assistance he required. Instinct prompted him to make use of them. Among the various appetites which made him at different times experience different modes of existence, there is one that excited him to perpetuate his species. And this blind propensity, quite void of anything like pure love or affection, produced nothing but an act that was merely animal. The present heat once allayed, the sexes took no further notice of each other and even the child ceased to have any tie to his mother the moment he ceased to want her assistance. Such was the condition of the infant man. Just was the life of an animal confined at first to pure sensations and so far from harboring any thought of forcing her gifts from nature that he scarcely availed himself of those which she offered to him of her own accord. But difficulty soon arose and there was a necessity for learning how to surmount them. The height of some trees which prevented his reaching their fruits, the competition of other animals equally fond of the same fruits, the fierceness of many that even aimed at his life. These were so many circumstances which obliged him to apply to bodily exercise. There is a necessity for becoming active, swift-footed and sturdy in battle. The natural arms which are stones and the branches of trees soon offered themselves to his assistants. He learned to surmount the obstacles of nature, to contend in the case of necessity with other animals, to dispute his subsistence even with other men, or indemnify himself for the loss of whatever he found himself obliged to part with the strongest. In proportion as the human species grew more numerous and extended itself, its pains likewise multiplied and increased. The difference of soils, climates and seasons might have forced men to observe some difference in their way of living. Red harvests, long and severe winters, and scorching summers which parched up all the fruits of the earth, required extraordinary exertions of industry. On the seashore and the banks of rivers, they invented the line and the hook, and became fishermen and achetheophagus. In the forests they made themselves bows and arrows, and became huntsmen and warriors. In the cold countries they covered themselves with the skins of the beasts they had killed. Thunder, a volcano, or some happy accident made them acquainted with fire, a new resource against the rigors of winter. They discovered the method of preserving this element, then that of reproducing it. And lastly the way of preparing it with the flesh of animals, which heretofore they devoured raw from the carcass. This reiterated application of various beings to himself and to one another must have naturally engendered in the mind of man the idea of certain relations. These relations, which we express by the word great, little, strong, weak, swift, slow, fearful, bold, and the like, compared occasionally, and almost without thinking of it, produced in him some kind of reflection, or rather a mechanical prudence, which pointed out to him the precautions most essential to his preservation and safety. The new lights resulting from this development increased his superiority over other animals, by making him sensible of it. He laid himself out to ensnare them. He played them a thousand tricks, and though several surpassed him in strength or in swiftness, he in time became the master of those that could be of any service to him, and a sore enemy to those that could do him any mischief. Tis thus that the first look he gave into himself produced the first emotion of pride in him, tis thus that at a time he scarce knew how to distinguish between the different ranks of existence, by attributing to his species the first rank among animals in general, he prepared himself at a distance to pretend to it as an individual among those of his own species in particular. Though other men were not to him what they are to us, and he had scarce more intercourse with them than with other animals, they were not overlooked in his observations. The conformities, which in time he might discover between them and between himself and his female, made him judge of those he did not perceive, and seeing that they all behaved as himself would have done in similar circumstances, he concluded that their manner of thinking and willing was quite conformable to his own, and that this important truth, one once engraved deeply on his mind, made him follow by a pre-sentiment as sure as any logic, and with all much quicker, the best rules of conduct, which for the sake of his own safety and advantage it was proper he should observe towards them. Instructed by experience that the love of happiness is the sole principle of all human actions, he found himself in a condition to distinguish the few cases in which common interest might authorize him to build upon the assistance of his fellows, and those still fewer in which a competition of interests might justly render it suspected. In the first case he united with them in the same flock, or at most by the same kind of free association which obliged none of its members and lasted no longer than the transitory necessity that had given birth to it. In the second case everyone aimed at his own private advantage, either by open force if he found himself strong enough, or by cunning and address if he thought himself too weak to use violence. Such was the manner in which men might have insensibly acquired some gross idea of their mutual engagements and the advantage of fulfilling them, but this only as far as their present and sensible interest required. For as to foresight they were utter strangers to it, and far from troubling their heads about a distant futurity they scarce thought of the day following. Was a deer to be taken? Everyone saw that to succeed he must faithfully stand to his post, but suppose a hare to have slipped by within reach of any one of them, it is not to be doubted, but he pursued it without scruple, and when he had seized his prey never approached himself with having made his companions miss theirs. We may easily conceive that such an intercourse scarce required a more refined language that that of crows and monkeys which flocked together almost in the same manner. In articulate exclamations a great many gestures and some imitative sounds must have been for a long time the universal language of mankind, and by joining to these in every country some articulate and conventional sounds of which as I have already hinted it is not very easy to explain the institution. There arose particular languages, but rude, imperfect, and such nearly as are to be found at this day among several savage nations. My pen, straightened by the rapidity of time, the abundance of things I have to say, and the almost insensible progress of the first improvements flies like an arrow over numberless ages, for the slower the succession of events the quicker I may allow myself to be in relating them. At length these first improvements enabled man to improve at a greater rate. Industry grew perfect in proportion as the mind became more enlightened. Men soon ceasing to fall asleep under the first tree, or take shelter in the first cavern, lit upon some hard and sharp kinds of stone resembling spades or hatchets, and employed them to dig the ground, cut down the trees, and with the branches built huts, which they afterwards withthought themselves of plastering over with clay or dirt. This was the epoch of a first revolution which produced the establishment and distinction of families, and which introduced a species of property, and along with it perhaps a thousand quarrels and battles. As the strongest however were probably the first to make themselves cabins, which they knew they were able to defend, we may conclude that the weak found it much shorter and safer to imitate than to attempt to dislodge them. And as to those who were already provided with cabins, no one could have any great temptation to seize upon that of his neighbor, not so much because it did not belong to him, as because it could be of no service to him. And as besides to make himself master of it, he must expose himself to a very sharp conflict with the present occupiers. The first developments of the heart were the effects of a new situation which united husbands and wives, parents and children under one roof. The habit of living together gave birth to the sweetest sentiments the human species is acquainted with, conjugal and paternal love. Every family became a little society. So much the more firmly united as a mutual attachment and liberty were the only bonds of it, and it was now that the sexes whose way of life had been hitherto the same began to adopt different manners and customs. The women became more sedentary and accustomed themselves to stay at home and look after their children, while the men rambled abroad in quest of subsistence for the whole family. The two sexes likewise by living a little more at their ease began to lose somewhat of their usual ferocity and sturdiness. But if on the one hand individuals became less able to engage separately with wild beasts, they on the other were more easily got together to make a common resistance against them. In this new state of things, the simplicity and solitariness of man's life, the limitedness of his wants and the instruments which he had invented to satisfy them, leaving him a great deal of leisure, he employed it to supply himself with several conveniences unknown to his ancestors. And this was the first yoke he inadvertently imposed upon himself and the first source of mischief which he prepared for his children. For besides continuing in this manner to soften both body and mind, these conveniences having through use lost almost all their aptness to please and even degenerated into real wants. The privation of them became far more intolerable than the possession of them had been agreeable. To lose them was a misfortune, to possess them no happiness. Here we may a little better discover how the use of speech insensibly commences or improves in the bosom of every family and may likewise form conjectures concerning the manner in which diverse particular causes might have propagated language and accelerated its progress by rendering it every day more and more necessary. Great inundations or earthquakes surrounded inhabited districts with water or precipice, portions of the continent were by revolutions of the globe torn off and split into islands. It is obvious that among men thus collected and forced to live together a common idiom must have started up much sooner than among those who freely wandered through the forests of the mainland. Thus it is very possible that the inhabitants of the islands formed in this manner, after their first essays and navigation brought among us the use of speech, and it is very probable at least that society and languages commenced in islands and even acquired perfection there before the inhabitants of the continent knew anything of either. Everything now begins to wear a new aspect. Those who here to forewander through the woods by taking a more settled way of life gradually flock together, coalesce into several separate bodies, and at length form in every country distinct nations united in character and manners not by any laws or regulations, but by a uniform manner of life, a sameness of provisions, and the common influence of the climate. A permanent neighborhood must at last infallibly create some connection between different families. The transitory commerce required by nature soon produced among the youth of both sexes living in contiguous cabins of another kind of commerce, which besides being equally agreeable is rendered more durable by mutual intercourse. Men begin to consider different objects and to make comparisons. They insensibly acquire ideas of merit and beauty, and these soon produce sentiments of preference. By seeing each other often they contract a habit which makes it painful not to see each other always. Tender and agreeable sentiments steal into the soul and are by the smallest opposition wound up into the most impetuous fury. Jealousy kindles with love, discord triumphs, and the gentlest of passions acquire sacrifices of human blood to appease it. In proportion as ideas and sentiments succeed each other and the head and the heart exercise themselves, men continue to shake off their original wildness, and their connections become more intimate and extensive. They now begin to assemble around a great tree, singing and dancing. The genuine offspring of love and leisure become the amusement or rather the occupation of the men and women free from care thus gathered together. Everyone begins to survey the rest and wishes to be surveyed himself, and public esteem acquires a value. He who sings or dances best, the handsomest, the strongest, the most dexterous, the most eloquent, comes to be the most respected. This was the first step towards inequality and at the same time towards vice. From these first preferences that proceeded on one side vanity and contempt, on the other envy and shame, and the fermentation raised by these new leavens at length produced combinations fatal to happiness and innocence. Men no sooner began to set upon each other and know what a steam was than each laid claim to it, and it was no longer safe for any man to refuse it to another. Hence the first duties of civility and politeness even among savages and hence every voluntary injury became an affront, as besides the mischief which resulted from it as an injury, the party offended was sure to find in a contempt for his person more intolerable than the mischief itself. It was thus that every man punishing the contempt expressed for him by others in proportion to the value he set upon himself, the effects of revenge became terrible, and men learned to be sanguinary and cruel. Such precisely was the degree attained by most of the savage nations which whom we are acquainted. And it is for want of sufficiently distinguishing ideas and observing at how great a distance these people were from the first state of nature, that so many authors have hastily concluded that man is naturally cruel and requires a regular system of police to be reclaimed. Whereas nothing can be more gentle than he in his primitive state when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the pernicious good sense of civilized man, and equally confined by instinct and reason to the care of providing against the mischief which threatens him, he is withheld by natural compassion from doing any injury to others, so far from being ever so little prone even to return that which he has received. For according to the axiom of the wise lock, where there is no property there can be no injury. But we must take notice that the society now formed and the relations now established among men require in them qualities different from those which they derive from their primitive constitution, that as a sense of morality began to insinuate itself into human actions, and every man before the enacting of laws was the only judge and avenger of the injuries he had received, that goodness of heart suitable to the pure state of nature by no means suited infant society, that it was necessary punishment should become severe in the same proportion that the opportunities of offending became more frequent, and the dread of vengeance add strength to the weak curb of the law. Thus, though men were become less patient and natural compassion had already suffered some alteration, this period of the development of the human faculties, holding a just mean between the indolence of the primitive state and the petulant activity of self-love, must have been the happiest and most durable epoch. The more we reflect on this state, the more convinced we shall be that it was the least subject of any revolutions, the best for man, and that nothing could have drawn him out of it but some fatal accident which for the public good should never have happened. The example of the savages, most of whom have been found in this condition, seems to confirm that mankind was formed whenever to remain in it, that in this condition is the real youth of the world, and that all ulterior improvements have been so many steps in appearance towards the perfection of individuals, but in fact towards the decrepitness of the species. As long as men remain satisfied with their rustic cabins, as long as they can find themselves to the use of clothes made of the skins of other animals, and the use of thorns and fish bones in putting these skins together, as long as they continue to consider feathers and shells as sufficient ornaments, and to paint their bodies of different colors to improve or ornament their bows and arrows, to form and scoop out with sharp-edged stones some little fishing boats, or clumsy instruments of music, in a word as long as they undertook such works only as a single person could finish, and stuck to such arts as did not require the joint endeavors of several hands, they lived free, healthy, honest, and happy, as much as their nature would admit, and continued to enjoy with each other all the pleasures of an independent intercourse, but from the moment one man began to stand in need of another's assistance, from the moment it appeared an advantage for one man to possess the quantity of provisions requisite for two, all equality vanished, property started up, labor became necessary, and boundless forests became smiling fields, which it was found necessary to water with human sweat, and in which slavery and misery were soon seen to sprout out and grow with the fruits of the earth, metallurgy and agriculture were the two arts whose invention produced this great revolution. With the poet it is gold and silver, but with the philosopher it is iron and corn, which have civilized men and ruined mankind. Accordingly, both one and the other were unknown to the savages of America, who for that very reason have always continued savages. Nay, other nations seem to have continued in a state of barbarism, as long as they continue to exercise one only of these arts without the other, and perhaps one of the best reasons that can be assigned why Europe has been, if not earlier, at least more constantly and better civilized than the other quarters of the world, is that she both abounds most in iron and is best qualified to produce corn. It is a very difficult matter to tell how men came to know anything of iron and the art of employing it, for we are not to suppose that they should of themselves think of digging it out of the mines and preparing it for fusion before they knew what could be the result of such a process. On the other hand, there is the less reason to attribute this discovery to any accidental fire, as mines are formed nowhere but in dry and barren places and such as are bare of trees and plants, so that it looks as if nature had taken pains to keep from us so mischievous a secret. Nothing therefore remains but the extraordinary circumstance of some volcano, which belching forth metallic substances ready fused might have given the spectators a notion of imitating that operation of nature, and after all we must suppose them endured with an extraordinary stock of courage and foresight to undertake so painful a work and have at so great a distance an eye to the advantages they might derive from it. Quality is scarcely suitable but to heads more exercise than those of such discoveries can be supposed to have been. As to agriculture, the principles of it were known a long time before the practice of it took place, and it is hardly possible that men constantly employed in drawing their subsistence from trees and plants should not have early hit on the means employed by nature for the generation of vegetables, but in all probability it was very late before their industry took a turn that way, either because trees which with their land and water game supplied them with sufficient food did not require their attention, or because they did not know the use of corn, or because they had no instruments to cultivate it, or because they were destitute of foresight in regard to future necessities, or in fine because they wanted means to hinder others from running away with the fruits of their labors. We may believe that on their becoming more industrious, they began their agriculture by cultivating with sharp stones and pointed sticks a few pulse or roots about their cabins, and that it was a long time before they knew the methods of repairing corn and were provided with the instruments necessary to raise it in large quantities, not to mention the necessity there is in order to follow this occupation and so lands, to consent to lose something at present to gain a great deal hereafter, a precaution very foreign to the turn of man's mind in a savage state, in which, as I have already taken notice, he can hardly foresee his wants from morning to night. For this reason, the invention of other arts must have been necessary to oblige mankind to apply to that of agriculture. As soon as men were wanted to fuse and forge iron, others were wanted to maintain them. The more hands were employed in manufacturers, the fewer hands were left to provide subsistence for all, though the number of mouths to be supplied with food continued the same, and as some required commodities in exchange for their iron, the rest at last found out the method of making iron subservient to the multiplication of commodities. Hence, on the one hand, husbandry and agriculture, and on the other, the art of working metals and of multiplying the uses of them. To the tilling of the earth, the distribution of it necessarily succeeded, and to property once acknowledged the first rules of justice. For to secure every man his own, every man must have something. Moreover, as men began to extend their views to futurity and all found themselves in possession of more or less goods capable of being lost, everyone in particular had reason to fear, lest repisals should be made on him for any injury he might do to others. The origin is so much the more natural, as it is impossible to conceive how property can flow from any other source but industry, for what can a man add but his labor to things which he has not made in order to acquire a property in them? Tis the labor of the hands alone, which giving the husband men a title to the produce of the land he has tilled, gives him a title to the land itself, at least till he has gathered in the fruits of it. And so on from year to year, and this enjoyment forming a continued possession is easily transformed into a property. The ancients, says Grotius, by giving to Ceres the epithet of legislatrix and to a festival celebrated in her honor, the name of Thesmophobia, insinuated that the distribution of lands produced a new kind of right, that is the right of property different from that which results from the law of nature. Things thus circumstance might have remained equal if men's talents had been equal, and if for instance the use of iron and the consumption of commodities had always held an exact proportion to each other, but as this proportion had no support it was soon broken. The man that had most strength performed the most labor, the most dexterous turned his labor to best account, the most ingenious found out methods of lessening his labor, the husband men required more iron or the smith more corn, and while both worked equally one earned a great deal by his labor while the other could scarce live by his. It is thus that natural inequality insensibly unfolds itself with that arising from a variety of combinations, and that the difference among men developed by the difference of their circumstances becomes more sensible, more permanent in its effect, and begins to influence in the same proportion the condition of private persons. Things once arrived at this period, it is an easy matter to imagine the rest. I shall not stop to describe the successive inventions of other arts, the progress of language, the trial and employments of talents, the inequality of fortunes, the use or abuse of riches, nor all the details which follow these and which everyone may easily supply. I shall just give a glance at mankind placed in this new order of things. Behold then all our faculties developed, our memory and imagination at work, self-love interested, reason rendered active, and the mind almost arrived at the utmost bounds of that perfection it is capable of. Behold all our natural qualities put in motion, the rank and condition of every man established not only as to the quantum of property and the power of serving or hurting others, but likewise as to genius, beauty, strength, or address, merit or talents. And as these were the only qualities which could command respect, it was found necessary to have or at least to affect them. It was requisite for men to be thought what they really were not. To be and to appear became two very different things, and from this distinction sprang pomp and navery, and all the vices which formed their train. On the other hand, man, heretofore free and independent, was now in consequence of a multitude of nude wants brought under subjection, as it were, to all nature and especially to his fellows, whose slave in some sense he became even by becoming their master. If rich, he stood in need of their services, if poor, of their assistance, even mediocrity itself could not enable him to do without them. He must therefore have been continually at work to interest them in his happiness, and make them, if not really, at least apparently find their advantage in laboring for his. This rendered him sly and artful in his dealings with some, imperious and cruel in his dealings with others, and laid him under the necessity of using ill all those whom he stood in need of, as often as he could not awe them into a compliance with his will, and did not find it his interest to purchase it at the expense of real services. In fine, an insatiable ambition, the rage of raising their relative fortunes, not so much through real necessity as to overtop others, inspire all men with a wicked inclination to injure each other, and with a secret jealousy so much the more dangerous as to carry its point with the greater security, and often puts on the face of benevolence. In a word, sometimes nothing was to be seen but a contention of endeavors on the one hand, and an opposition of interests on the other, while a secret desire of thriving at the expense of others constantly prevailed, such were the first effects of property, and the inseparable attendants of infant inequality. Riches, before the invention of signs to represent them, could scarce consist in anything but lands and cattle, the only real goods which men can possess. But when estates increased so much in number, and an extent to take in whole countries and touch each other, it became impossible for one man to aggrandize himself but at the expense of some other. And the supernumerary inhabitants, who were too weak or too indolent to make such acquisitions in their turn, impoverished without losing anything, because while everything about them changed, they alone remained the same, were obliged to receive or force their subsistence from the hands of the rich, and hence began to flow according to the different characters of each, domination and slavery, or violence and repine. The rich on their side scarce began to taste the pleasure of commanding when they preferred it to every other, and making use of their old slaves to acquire new ones, they no longer thought of anything but subduing and enslaving their neighbors. Like those ravenous wolves who having once tasted human flesh despise every other food and devour nothing but men for the future. It is thus that the most powerful or the most wretched, respectively considering their powers and wretchedness as a kind of title to the substance of others, even equivalent to that of property, the equality once broken was followed by the most shocking disorders. It is thus that the usurpations of the rich, the pillaging of the poor, and the unbridled passions of all by stifling the cries of natural compassion and the as yet feeble voice of justice rendered man avaricious, wicked and ambitious. There arose between the title of the strongest and that of the first occupier a perpetual conflict which always ended in battery and bloodshed. Infant society became a scene of the most horrible warfare, mankind thus debased and harassed and no longer able to retreat or renounce the unhappy acquisitions it had made, laboring in short merely to its confusion by the abuse of those faculties which in themselves do it so much honor, brought itself to the very brink of ruin and destruction. Autonatis novatate molly divesque miserque effugere optot opus et quomodo vovorot odit but it is impossible that men should not sooner or later have made reflections on so wretched a situation and upon the calamities with which they were overwhelmed, the rich in particular must have soon perceived how much they suffered by a perpetual war of which they alone supported all the expense and in which though all risked life they alone risked any substance besides whatever color they might pretend to give their usurpations they sufficiently saw that these usurpations were in the main founded upon false and precarious titles and that what they had acquired by mere force others could gain again by mere force rest out of their hands without leaving them the least room to complain of such a proceeding. Even those who owed all their riches to their own industry could scarce ground their acquisitions upon a better title. It availed them nothing to say it was I built this wall I acquired this spot by my labor. Who traced it out for you another might object and what right have you to expect payment at our expense for doing that we did not oblige you to do. Don't you know that numbers of your brethren perish or suffer grievously for want of what you possess more than suffices nature and that you should have had the express and unanimous consent of mankind to appropriate to yourself of their common more than was requisite for your private subsistence destitute of solid reasons to justify and sufficient force to defend himself crushing individuals with ease but with equal ease crushed by numbers one against all and unable on account of mutual jealousies to unite with his equals against bandit he united by the common hopes of pillage the rich man thus pressed by necessity at last conceived the deepest project that ever entered the human mind this was to employ in his favor the very forces that attacked him to make allies of his enemies to inspire them with other maxims and make them adopt other institutions as favorable to his pretensions as the law of nature was unfavorable to them with this view after laying for his neighbors all the horrors of a situation which armed them all one against another which rendered their possessions as burdensome as their wants were intolerable and in which no one would expect any safety either in poverty or riches he easily invented specious arguments to bring them over to his purpose let us unite said he to secure the weak from oppression restrain the ambitious and secure to every man the possession of what belongs to him let us form rules of justice in peace to which all may be obliged to conform which shall not accept persons but may in some sort make amends for the caprice of fortune by submitting alike the powerful and the weak to the observance of mutual duties in a word instead of turning our forces against ourselves let us collect them into a sovereign power which may govern us by wise laws it protect and defend all the members of the association repel common enemies and maintain perpetual concord and harmony among us much fewer words of this kind were sufficient to draw in a parcel of rustics whom it was an easy matter to impose upon who had besides too many quarrels among themselves to live without arbiters and too much avarice and ambition to live long without masters all offered their next to the yoke in hopes of securing their liberty for though they had sense enough to perceive the advantages of a political constitution they had not experience enough to see beforehand the dangers of it those among them who were best qualified to foresee abuses were precisely those who expected to benefit by them even the soberest judge that requisite to sacrifice one part of their liberty to ensure the other as a man dangerously wounded in any of his limbs readily parts with it to save the rest of his body such was or must have been had ban been left to himself the origin of society and of the laws which increased the fetters of the weak and the strength of the rich irretrievably destroyed natural liberty fixed forever the laws of property and inequality changed an artful usurpation into an irrevocable title and for the benefit of a few ambitious individuals subjected the rest of mankind to perpetual labor servitude and misery we may easily conceive how the establishment of a single society rendered that of all the rest absolutely necessary and how to make head against united forces it became necessary for the rest of mankind to unite in their turn society is once formed in this manner soon multiplied or spread to such degree as to cover the face of the earth and not to leave a corner in the whole universe where a man could throw off the yoke and withdraw his head from under the often ill conducted sword which he saw permanently hanging over it the civil law being thus become the common rule of citizens the law of nature no longer obtained but among the different societies in which under the name of the law of nations it was qualified by some tacit conventions to render commerce possible and supply the place of natural compassion which losing by degrees all that influence over societies which it originally had over individuals no longer exists but in some great souls who consider themselves as citizens of the world and forcing the imaginary barriers that separate people from people after the example of the sovereign being from whom we all derive our existence make the whole human race the object of their benevolence end of discourse second part section one section six of the discourse on inequality by Jean-Jacques Rousseau this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org this is a reading by Eric Jonas a discourse upon the origin and the foundation of the inequality among mankind by Jean-Jacques Rousseau discourse second part section two political bodies thus remaining in a state of nature among themselves soon experienced the inconveniences which had obliged individuals to quit it and this state became much more fatal to these great bodies than it had been before to the individuals which now composed them hence those national wars those battles those murders those reprisals which make nature shudder and shock reason hence all those horrible prejudices which make it a virtue and an honor to shed human blood the worthiest men learned to consider the cutting the throats of their fellows as a duty at length men began to butcher each other by thousands without knowing for what and more murders were committed in a single action and more horrible disorders at the taking of a single town than had been committed in the state of nature during ages together upon the whole face of the earth such are the first effects we may conceive to have arisen from the division of mankind into different societies let us return to their institution i know that several writers have assigned other origins of political society as for instance the conquest of the powerful or the union of the weak and it is no matter which of these causes we adopt in regard to what i am going to establish that however which i have just laid down seems to me the most natural for the following reasons first because in the first case the right of conquest being in fact no right at all it could not serve as a foundation for any other right the conqueror and the conquered ever remaining with respect to each other in a state of war unless the conquered restored to the full possession of their liberty should freely choose their conqueror for their chief till then whatever capitulations might have been made between them as these capitulations were founded upon violence and of course de facto null and void there could not have existed in this hypothesis either a true society or a political body or any other law but that of the strongest second because these words strong and weak or ambiguous in the second case for during the interval between the establishment of the right of property or prior occupation and that of political government the meaning of these terms is better expressed by the words poor and rich as before the establishment of laws men in reality had no other means of reducing their equals but by invading the property of these equals or by parting with some of their own property to them third because the poor having nothing but their liberty to lose it would have been the height of madness in them to give up willingly the only blessing they had left without obtaining some consideration for it whereas the rich being sensible if i may say so and every part of their possessions it was much easier to do them mischief and therefore more incumbent upon them to guard against it and because in fine it is but reasonable to suppose that a thing has been invented by him to whom it could be of service rather than by him to whom it must prove detrimental government in its infancy had no regular and permanent form for want of a sufficient fund of philosophy and experience men could see no further than the present inconveniences and never thought of providing remedies for future ones but in proportion as they arose in spite of all the labors of the wisest legislators the political state still continued imperfect because it was in a manner the work of chance and as the foundations of it were ill laid time though sufficient to discover its defects and suggest the remedies for them could never mend its original vices men were continually repairing whereas to erect a good edifice they should have begun as like hergested at sparta by clearing the area and removing the old materials society at first consisted merely of some general conventions which all the members bound themselves to observe and for the performance of which the whole body became security to every individual experience was necessary to show the great weakness of such a constitution and how easy it was for those who infringed it to escape the conviction or chastisement of faults of which the public alone was to be both the witness and the judge the laws could not fail of being eluded in a thousand ways inconveniences and disorders could not but multiply continually till it was at last found necessary to think of committing to private persons the dangerous trust of public authority and to magistrates the care of enforcing obedience to the people for to say that chiefs were elected before confederacies were formed and that the ministers of the laws existed before the laws themselves is a supposition too ridiculous to deserve i should seriously refute it it would be equally unreasonable to imagine that men at first threw themselves into the arms of an absolute master without any conditions or consideration on his side and that the first means contrived by jealous and unconquered men for their common safety was to run hand overhead into slavery in fact why did they give themselves superiors if it was not to be defended by them against oppression and protected in their lives liberties and properties which are in a manner the constitutional elements of their being now in the relations between man and man the worst that can happen to one man being to see himself at the discretion of another would it not have been contrary to the dictates of good sense to begin by making over to achieve the only things for the preservation of which they stood in need of his assistance what equivalent could he have offered them for so fine a privilege and had he presumed to exact it on pretense of defending them would he not have immediately received the answer in the apologue what worst treatment can we expect from an enemy it is therefore past dispute and indeed a fundamental maximum of political law that people gave themselves chiefs to defend their liberty and not to be enslaved by them if we have a prince said plenty to trojan it is in order that he may keep us from having a master political writers argue in regard to the love of liberty with the same philosophy that philosophers do in regard to the state of nature by the things they see they judge of things very different which they have never seen and they attribute to men a natural inclination to slavery on account of the patience with which the slaves within their notice carry the yoke not reflecting that it is with liberty as with innocence and virtue the value of which is not known but by those who possess them though the relish for them is lost with the things themselves i know the charms of your country said bras it us to a satrap who is comparing the life of the Spartans with that of the Persepolites but you cannot know the pleasures of mine as an unbroken coarser erects his main pause the ground and rages at the bare sight of the bit while a trained horse patiently suffers both whip and spur just so the barbarian will never reach his neck to the yoke which civilized man carries without murmuring but prefers the most stormy liberty to a calm subjection it is not therefore by the servile disposition of enslaved nations that we must judge of the natural dispositions of man for or against slavery but by the prodigies done by every free people to secure themselves from oppression i know that the first are constantly crying up that peace and tranquility they enjoy in their irons and that miss era mom servitude them pockham appellant but when i see the other sacrifice pleasures peace riches power and even life itself to the preservation of that single jewel so much slighted by those who have lost it when i see freeborn animals through a natural abhorrence to captivity dash their brains out against the bars of their prison when i see multitudes of naked savages despise european pleasures and brave hunger fire and sword and death itself to preserve their independency i feel it belongs not to slaves to argue concerning liberty as to paternal authority from which several have derived absolute government and every other mode of society it is sufficient without having recourse to lock and sydney to observe that nothing in the world differs more from the cruel spirit of despotism that the gentleness of that authority which looks more to the advantage of him who obeys than to the utility of him who commands that by the law of nature the father continues master of his child no longer than the child stands in need of his assistance that after that term they become equal and that then the son entirely independent of the father owes him no obedience but only respect gratitude is indeed a duty which we are bound to pay but which benefactors cannot exact instead of saying that civil society is derived from paternal authority we should rather say it is to the former that the latter owes its principal force no one individual was acknowledged as the father of several other individuals till they settled about him the father's goods which he can indeed dispose of as he pleases are the ties which hold his children to their dependence upon him and he may divide his substance among them in proportion as they shall have deserved his attention by a continual deference to his commands now the subjects of a despotic chief far from having any such favor to expect from him as both themselves and all they have or his property or at least are considered by him as such or obliged to receive as a favor what he relinquishes to them of their own property he does them justice when he strips them he treats them with mercy when he suffers them to live by continuing in this manner to compare facts with right we should discover as little solidity as truth in the voluntary establishment of tyranny and it would be a hard matter to prove the validity of a contract which was binding only on one side in which one of the party should stake everything and the other nothing in which could turn out to the prejudice of him alone who had bound himself this odious system is even at this day far from being that of wise and good monarchs and especially of the kings of france this may be seen by diverse passages in their edicts and particularly by that of a celebrated piece published in 1667 in the name and by the orders of louis the fourteenth quote let it therefore not be said that the sovereign is not subject to the laws of his realm sense that he is is a maximum of the law of nations which flattery has sometimes attacked but which good princes have always defended as the tutelary divinity of their realms how much more reasonable is it to say with the sage play toe that the perfect happiness of a state consists in the subject obeying their prince the prince obeying the laws and the laws being equitable and always directed to the good of the public unquote i shall not stop to consider if liberty being the most noble faculty of ban it is not degrading to one's nature reducing oneself to the level of brutes who are the slaves of instinct and even offending the author of one's being to renounce without reserve the most precious of his gifts and submit to the commission of all the crimes he has forbid us merely to gratify a mad or cruel master and if this sublime artist ought to be more irritating at seeing his work destroyed than at seeing it dishonored i shall only ask what right those who are not afraid thus to degrade themselves could have to subject their dependence to the same ignominy and renounce in the name of their posterity blessings for which it is not indebted to their liberality and without which life itself must appear a burdened all those who are worthy to live puff and or says that as we can transfer our property from one to another by contracts and conventions we may likewise divest ourselves of our liberty in favor of other men this in my opinion is a very poor way of arguing for in the first place the property i ced to another becomes by such session a thing quite foreign to me and the abuse of which can no way affect me but it concerns me greatly that my liberty is not abused and i cannot without incurring the guilt of the crimes i may be forced to commit expose myself to become the instrument of any besides the right of property being of mere human convention and institution every man may dispose as he pleases of what he possesses but the case is otherwise with regard to the essential gifts of nature such as life and liberty which every man is permitted to enjoy and of which it is doubtful at least whether any man has a right to divest himself by giving up the one we degrade our being by giving up the other we annihilate it as much as it is our power to do so and as no temporal enjoyments can indemnify us for the loss of either it would be at once offending both nature and reason to renounce them for any consideration but though we could transfer our liberty as we do our substance the difference would be very great with regard to our children who enjoy our substance but by a session of our right whereas liberty being a blessing which as men they hold from nature their parents have no right to strip them of it so that as to establish slavery it was necessary to do violence to nature so it was necessary to alter nature to perpetuate such a right and the jurist consults who have gravely pronounced that the child of a slave comes a slave into the world have in other words decided that a man does not come a man into the world it therefore appears to me incontestably true that not only governments did not begin by arbitrary power which is but the corruption and extreme term of government and at length brings it back to the law of the strongest against which governments were at first the remedy but even that allowing they had commenced in this manner such power being illegal in itself could never have served as a foundation to the rights of society nor of course to the inequality of institution i shall not now enter upon the inquiries which still remain to be made into the nature of the fundamental packs of every kind of government but following the common opinion confined myself in this place to the establishment of the political body as a real contract between the multitude and the chiefs elected by it a contract by which both parties obliged themselves to the observance of the laws that are there in stipulated and form the bands of their union the multitude having on occasion of the social relations between them concentered all their wills in one person all the articles in regard to which this will explains itself become so many fundamental laws which obliged without exception all the members of the state and one of which laws regulates the choice and the power of the magistrates appointed to look to the execution of the rest this power extends to everything that can maintain the constitution but extends to nothing that can alter it to this power are added honors that may render the laws and the ministers of them respectable and the persons of the ministers are distinguished by certain prerogatives which may take them amends for the great fatigues and inseparable from a good administration the magistrate on his side obliges himself not to use the power with which he is entrusted but conformably to the intention of his constituents to maintain every one of them in the peaceable possession of his property and upon all occasions prefer the good of the public to his own private interest before experience had demonstrated or a thorough knowledge of the human heart had pointed out the abuses inseparable from such a constitution it must have appeared so much the more perfect as those appointed to look to its preservation were themselves most concerned therein for a magistracy and its rights being built solely on the fundamental laws so soon as these cease to exist the magistrates would cease to be lawful the people would no longer be bound to obey them and as the essence of the state did not consist in the magistrates but in the laws the members of it would immediately become entitled to their primitive and natural liberty a little reflection would afford us new arguments in confirmation of this truth and the nature of the contract might alone convince us that it cannot be irrevocable for if there was no superior power capable of guaranteeing the fidelity of the contracting parties and of obliging them to fulfill their mutual engagements they would remain soul judges in their own case and each of them would always have a right to renounce the contract as soon as he discovered that the other had broke the conditions of it or that these conditions cease to suit his private convenience upon this principle the right of abdication may probably be founded now to consider as we do nothing but what is human in this institution if the magistrate who has all the power in his own hands and who appropriates to himself all the advantages of the contract has not withstanding a right to divest himself of his authority how much a better right must the people who pay for all the faults of its chief have to renounce their dependence upon him but the shocking dissensions and disorders without number which would be the necessary consequence of so dangerous a privilege show more than anything else how much a human government stood in need of a more solid basis than that of mere reason and how necessary it was for the public tranquility that the will of the Almighty should interpose to give to sovereign authority a sacred and inviolable character which should deprive subjects of the mystery of its right to dispose of it whom they pleased if mankind had received no other advantages from religion this alone would be sufficient to make them adopt and cherish it since it is the means of saving more blood than fanaticism has been the cause of the spilling but to resume the thread of our hypothesis the various forms of government owe their origin to the various degrees of inequality between the members at the time they first coalesced into a political body where a man happened to be eminent for power for virtue for riches or for credit he became sole magistrate and the state assumed a monarchial form if many of pretty equal eminence out topped all the rest they were jointly elected and this election produced an aristocracy those between whose fortune or talents there happened to be no such disproportion and who had deviated less from the state of nature retained in common the supreme administration and formed a democracy time demonstrated which of these forms suited mankind best some remained altogether subject to the laws other soon bowed their next to masters the former labored to preserve their liberty the latter thought of nothing but invading that of their neighbors jealous at seeing others enjoy a blessing which themselves had lost in a word riches and conquest fell to the share of the one and virtue and happiness to that of the other in these various modes of government the offices at first were all elective and when riches did not preponderate the preference was given to merit which gives a natural ascendant and to age which is the parent of deliberateness in council and experience in execution the ancients among the Hebrews the gerunds of sparta the senate of Rome nay the very etymology of our word senior shows how much gray hairs were formerly respected the oftener the choice fell upon old man the oftener it became necessary to repeat it and the more the trouble of such repetitions became sensible electioneering took place factions arose the parties contracted ill blood civil wars blazed forth the lives of the citizens were sacrificed to the pretended happiness of the state and things at last came to such a pass as to be ready to relapse into their primitive confusion the ambition of the principal men induced them to take advantage of these circumstances to perpetuate the hitherto temporary charges in their families the people already in urge to dependence accustomed to ease and the conveniences of life and too much enervated to break their fetters consented to the increase of their slavery for the sake of securing their tranquility and it is thus the chiefs become hereditary contracted the habit of considering magistracies as a family estate and themselves as proprietors of those communities of which at first they were but mere officers to call their fellow citizens their slaves to look upon them like so many cows or sheep as a part of their substance and to style themselves the peers of gods and kings of kings by pursuing the progress of inequality in these different revolutions we shall discover that the establishment of laws and of the right of property was the first term of it the institution of magistrates the second and the third and last the changing of legal and arbitrary power so that the different states of rich and poor were authorized by the first epoch those of powerful and weak by the second and by the third those of master and slave which forms a last degree of inequality and the term in which all the rest at last and till new revolutions entirely dissolve the government or bring it back nearer to its legal constitution to conceive the necessity of this progress we are not so much to consider the motives for the establishment of political bodies as the forms these bodies assume in their administration and the inconveniences with which they are essentially attended for those vices which render social institutions necessary are the same which render the abuse of such institutions unavoidable and as sparta alone accepted whose laws chiefly regarded the education of children and where like urges established such manners and customs as in great measure made laws needless the laws in general less strong than the passions or strain men without changing them it would be no hard matter to prove that every government which carefully guarding against all alteration and corruption should scrupulously comply with the ends of its institution was unnecessarily instituted and that a country where no one either eluded the laws or made an ill use of majesty required neither laws nor magistrates political distinctions are necessarily attended with civil distinctions the inequality between the people and the chiefs increased so fast as to be soon felt by the private members and appears among them in a thousand shapes according to their passions their talents and the circumstances of affairs the magistrate cannot usurp any illegal power without making himself creatures with whom he must divide it besides the citizens of a free state suffer themselves to be oppressed merely in proportion as hurried on by a blind ambition and looking rather below than above them they come to love authority more than independence when they submit to fetters his only to be the better able to feather others in their turn it is no easy matter to make them obey who did not wish to command and the most refined policy would find it impossible to subdue those men who only desire to be independent but inequality easily gains ground among base and ambitious souls ever ready to run the risks of fortune and almost indifferent whether they command or obey as she proves either favorable or adverse to them thus then there must have been a time when the eyes of the people were bewitched to such a degree that their rulers needed only to have said to the most pitiful wretch be great you and all your posterity to make him immediately appear great in the eyes of everyone as well as in his own and his descendants took still more upon them in proportion to their removes from him the more distant and uncertain the cause the greater the effect the longer lines of drones a family produced the more illustrious it was reckoned were this a proper place to enter into details I could easily explain in what manner inequalities and point of credit and authority become unavoidable among private persons the moment that united into one body they are obliged to compare themselves one with another and to note the differences which they find in the continual use every man must make of his neighbor these differences are of several kinds but riches nobility or rank power and personal merit being in general the principal distinctions by which men in society measure each other I could prove that the harmony or conflict between these different forces is the surest indication of the good or bad original constitution of any state I could make it appear that as among these four kinds of inequality personal qualities are the source of all the rest riches is that in which they ultimately terminate because being the most immediately useful to the prosperity of individuals and the most easy to communicate they are made use of to purchase every other distinction by this observation we are unable to judge with tolerable exactness how much any people has deviated from its primitive institution and what steps it has still to make the extreme term of corruption I could show how much this universal desire of reputation of honors of preference with which we are all devoured exercises and compares our talents and our forces how much it excites and multiplies our passions and by creating a universal competition rivalship or rather enmity among men how many disappointments successes and catastrophes of every kind at daily causes among the innumerable pretenders whom it engages in the same career I could show that it is to this itch of being spoken of to this fury of distinguishing ourselves which seldom or never gives us a moment's respite that we owe both the best and the worst things among us our virtues and our vices our sciences and our errors our conquerors and our philosophers that is to say a great many bad things to the very few good ones I could prove in short that if we behold a handful of rich and powerful men seated on the pinnacle of fortune and greatness while the crowd grovel in obscurity and want it is merely because the first prize what they enjoy but in the same degree that others want it and that without changing their condition they would cease to be happy the minute the people cease to be miserable but these details would alone furnish sufficient matter for a more considerable work in which might be weighted the advantages and disadvantages of every species of government relatively to the rights of man in a state of nature it might likewise be unveiled all the different faces under which inequality has appeared to this day and may hereafter appear to the end of time according to the nature of these several governments and the revolution's time must unavoidably occasion in them we should then see the multitude oppressed by domestic tyrants and consequence of those very precautions taken by them to guard against foreign masters we should see oppression increase continually without its being ever possible for the oppressed to know where it would stop nor what lawful means they had left to check its progress we should see the rights of citizens and the liberties of nations extinguished by slow degrees and the groans and protestations and appeals of the weak treated as seditious murmurings we should see policy confined to a mercenary portion of the people the honor of defending the common cause we should see impostes made necessary by such measures that its heartened husbandmen desert his field even in time of peace and quit the plow to take up the sword we should see fatal and whimsical rules laid down considering the point of honor we should see the champions of their country sooner or later become her enemies and perpetually holding the pwn yard to the breasts of their fellow citizens nay the time would come when they might be heard to say to the oppressor of their country pectores see fratris gladium juguloque parentus condera me jubias gravedo aque in viscera partu conjugal in vita peragum toman omnia dextra from the vast inequality of conditions and fortunes from this great variety of passions and of talents of useless arts of pernicious arts of frivolous sciences would issue clouds of prejudices equally contrary to reason to happiness to virtue we should see the chiefs ferment everything that tends to weaken men formed into societies by dividing them everything that while it gives society an air of apparent harmony sows in it the seeds of real division everything that can inspire the different orders with mutual distrust and hatred by an opposition of their rights and interests and of course strengthen that power which contains them all tis from the bosom of this disorder and these revolutions that despotism gradually rearing up her hideous crests and devouring in every part of the state all that still remain sound and untainted would at last issue to trample upon the laws and the people and establish herself upon the ruins of the republic the times immediately proceeding this last alteration would be times of calamity and trouble but at last everything would be swallowed up by the monster and the people would no longer have chiefs or laws but only tyrants at this fatal period all regard to virtue and manners would likewise disappear for despotism kui ex honesto nulla est space tolerates no other master wherever it rains the moment it speaks probity and duty lose all their influence and the blindest obedience is the only virtue the miserable slaves have left them to practice this is the last term of inequality the extreme point which closes the circle and meets that which we set out tis here that all private men return to their primitive equality because they are no longer of any account and that the subjects having no longer any law but that of their masters nor the master any other law but his passions all notions of good and principles of justice again disappear tis here that everything returns to the sole law of the strongest and of course to a new state of nature different from that with which we began in as much as the first was the state of nature and its purity and the last the consequence of excessive corruption there is in other respects so little difference between these two states and the contract of government is so much dissolved by despotism that the despot is no longer master than he continues the strongest and that as soon as his slaves can expel him they may do it without his having the least right to complain of their using him ill the insurrection which ends in the death or despotism of a sultan is as juridical an act as any by which the day before he disposed of the lives and fortunes of his subjects force alone upheld him force alone overturns him thus all things take place and succeed in their natural order and whatever may be the upshot of these hasty and frequent revolutions no one man has reason to complain of another's injustice but only of his own indiscretion or bad fortune by this discovering and following the lost and forgotten tracks by which man from the natural must have arrived at the civil state by restoring with the intermediate positions which I have been just indicating those which want of leisure obliges me to suppress or which my imagination has not suggested every attentive reader must unavoidably be struck that the immense space which separates these two states his in this slow succession of things he may meet with the solution of an infinite number of problems in morality and politics which philosophers are puzzled to solve he will perceive that the mankind of one age not being the mankind of another the reason why diogenes could not find a man was that he sought among his contemporaries the man of an earlier period Cato he will then see fell with Rome and with liberty because he did not suit the age in which he lived and the greatest of men served only to astonish that world which would have cheerfully obeyed them had he come into a 500 years earlier in a word he finds himself in a condition to understand how the soul and the passions of men by insensible alterations change as it were their nature how it comes to pass that at the long run our wants and our pleasures change objects that original man vanishing by degrees society no longer offers our inspection but an assemblage of artificial men and factitious passions which are the work of all these new relations and have no foundation in nature reflection teaches us nothing on that head but what experience perfectly confirms savage man and civilized man differs so much at bottom and point of inclinations and passions that what constitutes the supreme happiness of the one would reduce the other to despair the first size for nothing but repose and liberty he desires only to live and to be exempt from labor nay the adoraxi of the most confirmed stoic fall short of his consummate indifference for every other object on the contrary the citizen always in motion is perpetually sweating and toiling and racking his brains to find out occupation still more laborious he continues a drudge to his last minute nay he courts death to be able to live or renounces life to acquire immortality he cringes to men and power whom he hates and to rich men whom he despises he sticks at nothing to have the honor of serving them he is not ashamed to value himself on his own weakness and the protection they afford him and proud of his chains he speaks with disdain of those who have not the honor of being the partner of his bondage what a spectacle must the painful and envied laborers of a european minister of state form in the eyes of a caribbean how many cruel deaths would not this indolence savage prefer to such a horrid life which very often is not even sweetened by the pleasure of doing good but to see the drift of so many cares his mind should first have affixed some meaning to these words power and reputation he should be apprised that there are men who consider as something the looks of the rest of mankind who know how to be happy and satisfied with themselves on the testimony of others sooner than upon their own in fact the real source of all those differences is that the savage lives within himself whereas the citizen constantly beside himself knows only how to live in the opinion of others in so much that it is if i may say so merely from their judgment that he derives the consciousness of his own existence it is foreign to my subject to show how this disposition engenders so much indifference for good and evil notwithstanding so many and such fine discourses of morality how everything being reduced to appearances becomes mere art and mummery honor friendship virtue and often vice itself which we at last learn the secret to boast of how in short ever inquiring of others what we are and never daring to question ourselves on so delicate a point in the midst of so much philosophy humanity and politeness and so many sublime maxims we have nothing to show for ourselves but a deceitful and frivolous exterior honor without virtue reason without wisdom and pleasure without happiness it is sufficient that i have proved that this is not the original condition of man and that it is merely the spirit of society and the inequality which society engenders that thus change and transform all our natural inclinations i have endeavored to exhibit the origin and progress of inequality the institution and abuse of political societies as far as these things are capable of being deduced from the nature of man by the mere light of reason and independently of those sacred maxims which give to the sovereign authority the sanction of divine right it follows from this picture that as there is scarce any inequality among men in a state of nature all that which we now behold owes its force and its growth to the development of our faculties and the improvement of our understanding and at last becomes permanent and lawful by the establishment of property and of laws it likewise follows that moral inequality authorized by any right that is merely positive clashes with natural right as often as it does not combine in the same proportion with physical inequality a distinction which sufficiently determines what we are able to think in that respect of that kind of inequality which obtains in all civilized nations since it is evidently against the law of nature that infancy should command old age folly conduct wisdom and a handful of men should be ready to choke with superfluities while the famished multitude want the commonest necessaries of life and of a discourse upon the origin and the foundation of the inequality among mankind by Jean Jacques Rousseau