 Chapter 29 of the Jesuits in North America. The Jesuits in North America in the seventeenth century by Francis Parkman. Chapter 29. 1649-1650. The Sanctuary. All was over with the Hurons. The death knell of their nation had struck. Without a leader, without organization, without union, crazed with fright and paralyzed with misery, they yielded to their doom without a blow. Their only thought was flight. Within two weeks after the disasters of St. Ignace and St. Louis, fifteen Huron towns were abandoned, and the greater number burnt, lest they should give shelter to the Iroquois. The last year's harvest had been scanty. The fugitives had no food, and they left behind them the fields in which was their only hope of obtaining it. In bands large or small, some roamed northward and eastward, through the half-thawed wilderness. Some hid themselves on the rocks or islands of Lake Huron. Some sought asylum among the tobacco-nation. A few joined the neutrals on the north of Lake Erie. The Hurons as a nation ceased to exist. Hitherto St. Marie had been covered by large fortified towns which slay between it and the Iroquois, but these were all destroyed, some by the enemy and some by their own people, and the Jesuits were left alone to bear the brunt of the next attack. There was moreover no reason for their remaining. St. Marie had been built as a basis for the missions, but its occupation was gone. The flock had fled from the shepherds, and its existence had no longer an object. If the priests stayed to be butchered they would perish, not as martyrs but as fools. The necessity was clear as it was bitter. All their toil must come to naught. St. Marie must be abandoned. They confessed the paying which the resolution cost them, but, pursues the Father Superior, since the birth of Christianity, the faith has nowhere been planted except in the midst of sufferings and crosses. Thus this desolation consoles us, and in the midst of persecution, in the extremity of the evils which assail us and the greater evils which threaten us, we are all filled with joy, for our hearts tell us that God has never had a more tender love for us than now. Several of the priests set out to follow and console the scattered bands of fugitive Hurons. One embarked in a canoe, and coasted the dreary shores of Lake Huron northward, among the wild labyrinth of rocks and islets, whither his scared flock had fled for refuge. Another but took himself to the forest with a band of half-famished proslights, and shared their miserable rovings through the thickets and among the mountains. Those who remained took counsel together at St. Marie. Where should they go, and where should be the new seat of the mission? They made choice of the great Montoulin Island, called by them Il St. Marie, and by the Hurons Accantaton. It lay near the northern shores of Lake Huron, and by its position would give a ready access to numberless Algonquin tribes along the borders of all these inland seas. Moreover, it would bring the priests and their flock nearer to the French settlements, by the route of the Ottawa, whenever the Iroquois should cease to infest that river. The fishing too was good, and some of the priests, who knew the island well, made a favourable report of the soil. Thither therefore they had resolved to transplant the mission, when twelve Huron chiefs arrived, and asked for an interview with the father superior and his fellow Jesuits. The conference lasted three hours. The deputies declared that many of the scattered Hurons had determined to reunite and form a settlement on the neighbouring island of the lake, called by the Jesuits Il St. Joseph, that they needed the aid of the fathers, that without them they were helpless, but with them they could hold their ground and repel the attacks of the Iroquois. They urged their plea in language which Ragnod describes as pathetic and eloquent, and to confirm their words they gave him ten large collars of wampum, saying that these were the voices of their wives and children. They gained their point. The Jesuits abandoned their former plan and promised to join the Hurons on Isle St. Joseph. They had built a boat or small vessel, and in this they embarked such of their stores as it would hold. The greater part were placed on a large raft made for the purpose, like one of the rafts of timber which every summer float down the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa. Here was their stock of corn, in part the produce of their own fields, and in part brought from the Hurons in former years of plenty—pictures, vestments, sacred vessels and images, weapons, ammunition, tools, goods for barter with the Indians, cattle, swine, and poultry. Saint-Marie was stripped of everything that could be moved. Then, lest it should harbor the Iroquois, they set it on fire, and saw, consumed in an hour the results of nine or ten years of toil. It was near sunset on the fourteenth of June. The houseless band descended to the mouth of the Y, went on board their raft, pushed it from the shore, and with sweeps and oars urged it on its way all night. The lake was calm and the weather fair, but it crept so slowly that several days elapsed before they reached their destination about twenty miles distant. Near the entrance of Machadash Bay lie the three islands now known as Faith, Hope, and Charity. Of these, Charity, or Christian Island, called Ahondo by the Hurons and sent Joseph by the Jesuits, is by far the largest. It is six or eight miles wide, and when the Hurons sought refuge here it was densely covered with the primeval forest. The priests landed with their men some forty soldiers, laborers, and others, and found about three hundred Huron families bivouacked in the woods. Here were wigwams and sheds of bark and smoky kettles slung over fires, each on its tripod of poles, while a round lay groups of famished wretches, with dark haggard visages and uncombed hair, in every posture of despondency and woe. They had not been wholly idle, for they had made some rough clearings and planted a little corn. The arrival of the Jesuits gave them new hope, and weakened as they were with famine, they set themselves to the task of hewing and burning down the forest, making bark houses and planting palisades. The priests on their part chose a favorable spot and began to clear the ground and mark out the lines of a fort. Their men, the greater part serving without pay, labored with admirable spirit, and before winter had built a square, bastioned fort of solid masonry, with a deep ditch and walls about twelve feet high. Within were a small chapel, houses for lodging, and a well, which, with the ruins of the walls, may still be seen on the south-eastern shore of the island, a hundred feet from the water. Detached redoubts were also built near at hand, where French musketeers could aid in defending the adjacent Huron village. Though the island was called St. Joseph, the fort, like that on the Y, received the name of Saint-Marie. Jesuit devotion scattered these names broadcast over all the field of their labors. The island, thanks to the vigilance of the French, escaped attack throughout the summer, but Iroquois scalping parties ranged to the neighboring shores, killing stragglers and keeping the Hurons in perpetual alarm. As winter grew near, great numbers, who trembling and by stealth had gathered a miserable subsistence among the northern forests and islands, rejoined their countrymen at St. Joseph, until six or eight thousand expatriated wretches were gathered here under the protection of the French fort. They were housed in a hundred or more bark dwellings, each containing eight or ten families. Here were widows without children, and children without parents, for famine and the Iroquois had proved more deadly enemies than the pestilence, which a few years before had wasted their towns. Of this multitude but a few had strength enough to labor, scarcely any had made provision for the winter, and numbers were already perishing from want, dragging themselves from house to house like living skeletons. The priests had spared no effort to meet the demands upon their charity. They sent men during the autumn to buy smoked fish from the northern Algonquins, and employed Indians to gather acorns in the woods. Of this miserable food they succeeded in collecting five or six hundred bushels. To diminish its bitterness the Indians boiled it with ashes, or the priests served it out to them pounded and mixed with corn. As winter advanced the Huron houses became a frightful spectacle. Their inmates were dying by scores daily. The priests and their men buried the bodies, and the Indians dug them from the earth or snow and fed on them, sometimes in secret and sometimes openly, although notwithstanding their superstitious feasts on the bodies of their enemies, their repugnance and horror were extreme at the thought of devouring those of relatives and friends. An epidemic presently appeared to aid the work of famine. Before spring about half of their number were dead. Meanwhile, though the cold was intense and the snow several feet deep, yet not an hour was free from the danger of the Iroquois, and from sunset to daybreak, under the cold moon or in the driving snowstorm, the French sentries walked their rounds along the ramparts. The priests rose before dawn and spent the time till sunrise in their private devotions. Then the bell of their chapel rang, and the Indians came in crowds at the call, for misery had softened their hearts, and nearly all on the island were now Christian. There was a mass, followed by a prayer and a few words of exhortation, then the hearers dispersed to make room for others. Thus the little chapel was filled ten or twelve times until all had had their turn. Meanwhile other priests were hearing confessions and giving advice and encouragement in private, according to the needs of each applicant. This lasted till nine o'clock, when all the Indians returned to their village, and the priests presently followed to give what assistance they could. Their cassocks were worn out, and they were dressed chiefly in skins. They visited the Indian houses, and gave to those whose necessities were most urgent small scraps of hide, thoroughly stamped with a particular mark, and entitling the recipients, on presenting them at the fort, to a few acorns, a small quantity of boiled maize, or a fragment of smoked fish, according to the stamp on the leather ticket of each. Two hours before sunset the bell of the chapel again rang, and the religious exercises of the morning were repeated. Thus this miserable winter wore away till the opening spring brought new fears and new necessities. CHAPTER 30. Garnier Chabonel Late in the preceding autumn the Iroquois boy had taken the warpath in force. At the end of November, two escaped prisoners came to Isle Saint-Joseph with the news that a band of three-hundred warriors was hovering in the Huron forests, doubtful whether to invade the island or to attack the towns of the Tobacco Nation in the valleys of the Blue Mountains. The Father Superior, Ragnon, sent a runner-dither in all haste to warn the inhabitants of their danger. There were at this time two missions in the Tobacco Nation, Saint Jean and Saint Matthias, the latter under the charge of the Jesuits Garot and Grelon, and the former under that of Garnier and Chabonel. Saint Jean, the principal seat of the mission of the same name, was a town of five or six hundred families. Its population was, moreover, greatly augmented by the bands of fugitive Hurons who had taken refuge there. When the warriors were warned by Ragnon's messenger of a probable attack from the Iroquois, they were far from being daunted. But confiding in their numbers, awaited the enemy in one of those fits of valor which characterized the unstable courage of the savage. At Saint Jean all was paint, feathers, and uproar, singing, dancing, howling, and stamping. Quivers were filled, knives wedded, and tomahawks sharpened. But when, after two days of eager expectancy, the enemy did not appear, the warriors lost patience. Fighting and probably with reason that the Iroquois were afraid of them, they resolved to sally forth and take the offensive. With yelps and whoops they defiled into the forest, where the branches were gray and bare, and the ground thickly covered with snow. They pushed on rapidly till the following day, but could not discover their wary enemy, who had made a wide circuit, and was approaching the town from another quarter. By ill luck the Iroquois captured a tobacco Indian in his squaw, straggling in the forest not far from Saint Jean, and the two prisoners, to propitiate them, told them the defenceless condition of the place, where none remained but women, children, and old men. The delighted Iroquois no longer hesitated, but silently and swiftly pushed on towards the town. It was two o'clock in the afternoon of the 7th of December. Chabanal had left the place a day or two before, in obedience to a message from Ragnar, and Garnier was here alone. He was making his rounds among the houses, visiting the sick and instructing his converts, when the horrible din of the war-woop rose from the borders of the clearing, and on the instant the town was mad with terror. Children and girls rushed to and fro, blind with fright. Women snatched their infants, and fled they knew not wither. Garnier ran to his chapel, where a few of his converts had sought asylum. He gave them his benediction, exhorted them to hold fast to the faith, and bade them fly while there was yet time. For himself he hastened back to the houses, running from one to another, and giving absolution or baptism to all whom he found. An Iroquois met him, shot him with three balls through the body and thigh, tore off his cassock, and rushed on in pursuit of the fugitives. Garnier lay for a moment on the ground as if stunned. Then, recovering his senses, he was seen to rise into a kneeling posture. At a little distance from him lay a Huron mortally wounded, but still showing signs of life. With the heaven that awaited him glowing before his fading vision, the priest dragged himself towards the dying Indian to give him absolution, but his strength failed, and he fell again to the earth. He rose once more, and crept forward, when a party of Iroquois rushed upon him, split his head with two blows of a hatchet, stripped him, and left his body on the ground. At this time the whole town was on fire. The invaders, fearing that the absent warriors might return and take their revenge, hastened to finish their work, scattered fire-brands everywhere, and threw children alive into the burning houses. They killed many of the fugitives, captured many more, and then made a hasty retreat through the forest with their prisoners, butchering such of them as lagged on the way. St. Jean lay a waste of smoking ruins, thickly strewn with blackened corpses of the slain. Towards evening parties of fugitives reached St. Matthias with tidings of the catastrophe. The town was wild with alarm, and all stood on the watch, in expectation of an attack. But when in the morning scouts came in and reported the retreat of the Iroquois, Garot and Grelan set out with a party of converts to visit the scene of Havoc. For a long time they looked in vain for the body of Garnier, but at length they found him lying where he had fallen, so scorched and disfigured that he was recognized with difficulty. The two priests wrapped his body in a part of their own clothing. The Indian converts dug a grave on the spot where his church had stood, and here they buried him. Thus at the age of forty-four died Shaw Garnier, the favorite child of wealthy and noble parents, nursed in Peresian luxury and ease, then living and dying a more than willing exile amid the hardships and horrors of the Huron wilderness. His life and his death are his best eulogy. Brabouf was the lion of the Huron mission, and Garnier was the lamb, but the lamb was as fearless as the lion. When, on the following morning, the warriors of Saint Jean returned from their rash and bootless sally, and saw the ashes of their desolated homes and the ghastly relics of their murdered families, they seated themselves amid the ruin, silent and motionless as statues of bronze, with heads bowed down and eyes fixed on the ground. Thus they remained through half the day. Tears and wailing were for women. This was the morning of warriors. Garnier's colleague, Shabanal, had been recalled from Saint Jean by an order from the Father Superior, who thought it needless to expose the life of more than one priest in a position of so much danger. He stopped on his way at Saint Matthias, and on the morning of the 7th of December, the day of the attack, left that town with seven or eight Christian Hurons. The journey was rough and difficult. They proceeded through the forest about eighteen miles, and then encamped in the snow. The Indians fell asleep, but Shabanal, from an apprehension of danger or some other cause, remained awake. About midnight he heard a strange sound in the distance, a confusion of fierce voices, mingled with songs and outcries. It was the Iroquois on their retreat with their prisoners, some of whom were defiantly singing their war songs after the Indian custom. Shabanal waked his companions, who instantly took flight. He tried to follow but could not keep pace with the light-footed savages, who returned to Saint Matthias and told what had occurred. They said, however, that Shabanal had left them and taken an opposite direction in order to reach Isle Saint Joseph. His brother priests were for some time ignorant of what had befallen him. At length a Huron Indian, who had been converted, but afterward apostatized, gave out that he had met him in the forest and aided him with his canoe to cross a river which lay in his path. Some supposed that he had lost his way and died of cold and hunger, but others were of a different opinion. Their suspicion was confirmed some time afterwards by the renegade Huron, who confessed that he had killed Shabanal and thrown his body into the river after robbing him of his clothes, his hat, the blanket or mantle which was strapped to his shoulders, and the bag in which he carried his books and papers. He declared that his motive was hatred of the faith, which had caused the ruin of the Hurons. The priest had prepared himself for a worst fate. Before leaving Saint Marie on the Y to go to his post in the tobacco nation, he had written to his brother to regard him as a victim destined to the fires of the Iroquois. He added that though he was naturally timid, he was now wholly indifferent to danger, and he expressed the belief that only a superhuman power could have wrought such a change in him. Garot and Grelan, in their mission of Saint Matthias, were exposed to other dangers than those of the Iroquois. A report was spread, not only that they were magicians, but that they had a secret understanding with the enemy. An nocturnal council was called, and their death was decreed. In the morning a furious crowd gathered before a lodge, which they were about to enter, screeching and yelling after the manner of Indians when they compelled a prisoner to run the gauntlet. The two priests, giving no sign of fear, passed through the crowd and entered the lodge unharmed. Hatchets were brandished over them, but no one would be the first to strike. Their converts were amazed at their escape, and they themselves ascribed it to the interposition of a protecting providence. The Huron missionaries were doubly in danger, not more from the Iroquois than from the blind rage of those who should have been their friends. The Huron mission abandoned. As spring approached, the starving multitude on Eel Sanctus if grew reckless with hunger. Along the main shore in spots where the sun lay warm, the spring fisheries had already begun, and the melting snow was uncovering the acorns in the woods. There was danger everywhere for bands of Iroquois were again on the track of their prey. The miserable Huron's nod with inexorable famine stood in the dilemma of a deadly peril and an assured death. They chose the former, and early in March began to leave their island and cross to the mainland to gather what sustenance they could. The ice was still thick, but the advancing season had softened it, and as a body of them were crossing it broke under their feet. Some were drowned while others dragged themselves out, drenched and pierced with cold to die miserably on the frozen lake before they could reach a shelter. Other parties, more fortunate, gained the shore safely and began their fishing, divided into companies from eight or ten to a hundred persons. But the Iroquois were in wait for them. A large band of warriors had already made their way through ice and snow from their towns in central New York. They surprised the Huron fishermen, surrounded them, and cut them in pieces without resistance, tracking out the various parties of their victims, and hunting down fugitives with such persistency and skill that of all who had gone over to the main the Jesuits knew of but one who escaped. Quote, my pen, writes Ragano, has no ink black enough to describe the fury of the Iroquois. End quote. Still the godings of famine were relentless and irresistible. Quote, it is said, adds the father superior, that hunger will drive wolves from the forest. So too are starving Hurons. Were driven out of a town which had become an abode of horror. It was the end of Lent. Alas, if these poor Christians could have had but acorns in water to keep their fast upon. On Easter day we caused them to make a general confession. On the following morning they went away leaving us all their little possessions, and most of them declared publicly that they made us their heirs, knowing well that they were near their end. And in fact only a few days passed before we heard of the disaster which we had foreseen. These poor people fell into emboscades of our Iroquois enemies. Some were killed on the spot, some were dragged into captivity, women and children were burned. If you made their escape and spread dismay and panic everywhere. A week after another band was overtaken by the same fate. Go where they would they met with slaughter on all sides. Famine pursued them, or they encountered an enemy more cruel than cruelty itself. And to crown their misery they heard the two great armies of Iroquois were on the way to exterminate them. Despair was universal, end quote. The Jesuits at St. Joseph knew not what course to take. The doom of their flock seemed inevitable. When dismay and despondency were at their height, two of the principal Huron chiefs came to the fort and asked an interview with Ragano and his companions. They told them that the Indians had held a council the night before and resolved to abandon the island. Some would disperse in the most remote and inaccessible forests. Others would take refuge in a distant spot, apparently the Grand Minitoulin island. Others would try to reach the Andasties and others would seek safety in adoption and in cooperation with the Iroquois themselves. Quote, take courage, brother, continued one of the chiefs addressing Ragano. You can save us if you will but resolve on a bold step. Choose a place where you can gather us together and prevent this dispersion of our people. Turn your eyes toward Quebec and transport thither what is left of this ruined country. Do not wait till war and famine have destroyed us to the last man. We are in your hands. Death has taken from you more than ten thousand of us. If you wait longer, not one will remain alive and then you will be sorry that you did not save those whom you might have snatched from danger and who showed you the means of doing so. If you do as we wish, we will form a church under the protection of the fort at Quebec. Our faith will not be extinguished. The examples of the French and the Algonquins will encourage us in our duty and their charity will relieve some of our misery. At least we shall sometimes find a morsel of bread for our children who so long have had nothing but bitter roots and acorns to keep them alive. The Jesuits were deeply moved. They consulted together again and again and prayed in turn during forty hours without ceasing that their minds might be enlightened. At length they resolved to grant the petition of the two chiefs and save the poor remnant of the Hurons by leading them to an asylum where there was at least a hope of safety. Their resolution once taken, they pushed their preparations with all speed, lest the Iroquois might learn their purpose and lie in wait to cut them off. Canoes were made ready and on the 10th of June they began the voyage with all their French followers and about 300 Hurons. The Huron mission was abandoned. Quote, it was not without tears, writes the Father Superior, that we left the country of our hopes and our hearts where our brethren had gloriously shed their blood. End quote. The fleet of canoes held its melancholy way along the shores where two years before it had been the seat of one of the chief savage communities of the continent and where now all was a waste of death and desolation. Then they steered northward along the eastern coast of the Georgian Bay with its countless rocky islets and everywhere they saw the traces of the Iroquois. When they reached Lake Nipissing they found it deserted, nothing remaining of the Algonquins who dwelt on its shore except the ashes of their burnt wigwams. A little farther on there was a fort built of trees where the Iroquois who made this desolation had spent the winter and a league or two below there was another similar fort. The river Ottawa was a solitude. The Algonquins of Alumet Island and the shore's adjacent had all been killed or driven away, never again to return. Quote, when I came up this river only 13 years ago, writes Ragnon. I found it bordered with Algonquin tribes who knew no god and in their infidelity thought themselves gods on earth, for they had all that they desired, abundance of fishing game and a prosperous trade with allied nations. Besides they were the terror of their enemies. But since they have embraced the faith and adored the cross of Christ he has given them a heavy share in this cross and made them a prey to misery, torture and a cruel death. In a word they are people swept from the face of the earth. Our only consolation is that as they died Christians they have a part in the inheritance of the true children of God who scourgeeth everyone whom he receiveth. End quote. As the voyagers descended the river they had a serious alarm. Their scouts came in and reported that they had found fresh footprints of men in the forest. These proved, however, to be the tracks not of enemies but of friends. In the preceding autumn Bressani had gone down to the French settlements with about 20 Hurons and was now returning with them and twice their number of armed Frenchmen for the defense of the mission. His scouts had also been alarmed by discovering the footprints of Ragnon's Indians and for some time the two parties stood on their guard each taking the other for an enemy. When at length they discovered their mistake they met with embraces and rejoicing. Bressani and his Frenchmen had come too late. All was over with the Hurons and the Huron mission and as it was useless to go farther they joined Ragnon's party and retraced their course for the settlements. A day or two before they had had a sharp taste of the metal. Ten Iroquois warriors had spent the winter in a little fort of fell trees on the borders of the Ottawa hunting for subsistence and waiting to wailay some passing canoe of Hurons, Algonquins or Frenchmen. Bressani's party outnumbered them six to one but they resolved that it should not pass without a token of their presence. Late on a dark night the French and Hurons lay encamped in the forest sleeping about their fires. They had set guards but these it seems were drowsy or negligent. For the ten Iroquois watching their time approached with the stealth of lynxes and glided like shadows into the midst of the camp where by the dull glow of the smoldering fires they could distinguish the recumbent figures of their victims. Suddenly they screeched the war-woop and struck like lightning with their hatchets among the sleepers. Seven were killed before the rest could spring to their weapons. Bressani leapt up and received on the instant three arrow wounds in the head. The Iroquois were surrounded and a desperate fight ensued in the dark. Six of them were killed on the spot and two made prisoners, while the remaining two, breaking through the crowd, bounded out of the camp and escaped in the forest. The united parties soon after reached Montreal but the Hurons refused to remain in a spot so exposed to the Iroquois. Accordingly they all descended the Saint Lawrence and at length on the 28th of July reached Quebec. Here the Ursulines, the hospital nuns and the inhabitants taxed their resources to the utmost to provide food and shelter for the exiled Hurons. Their good will exceeded their power for food was scarce at Quebec and the Jesuits themselves had to bear the chief burden of keeping the sufferers alive. But if famine was an evil the Iroquois were a far greater one for while the western nations of their Confederacy were engrossed with the destruction of the Hurons, the Mohawks kept up incessant attacks on the Algonquins and the French. A party of Christian Indians chiefly from Ciliary planned a stroke of retaliation and set out for the Mohawk country marching cautiously and sending forward scouts to scour the forest. One of these a Huron suddenly fell in with a large Iroquois war party and seeing that he could not escape formed on the instant of villainous plan to save himself. He ran towards the enemy crying out that he had long been looking for them and was delighted to see them, that his nation the Hurons had come to an end and that henceforth his country was the country of the Iroquois where so many of his kinsmen and friends had been adopted. He had come he declared with no other thought than that of joining them and turning Iroquois as they had done. The Iroquois demanded if he had come alone he answered no and said that in order to accomplish his purpose he had joined an Algonquin war party who were in the woods not far off. The Iroquois in great delight demanded to be shown where they were. This Judas as the Jesuits called him at once complied and the Algonquins were surprised by a sudden onset and routed with severe loss. The treacherous Huron was well treated by the Iroquois who adopted him into their nation. Not long after he came to Canada and with a view as it was thought to some further treachery rejoined the French. A sharp cross questioning put him to confusion and he presently confessed his guilt. He was sentenced to death and the sentence was executed by one of his own countrymen who split his head with a hatchet. In the course of the summer the French at Three Rivers became aware that a band of Iroquois was prowling in the neighborhood and 60 men went out to meet them. Far from retreating the Iroquois who were about 25 in number got out of their canoes and took post waist deep in mud and water among the tall rushes at the margin of the river. Here they fought stubbornly and kept all the Frenchmen at bay. At length finding themselves hard pressed they entered their canoes again and paddled off. The French rode after them and soon became separated in the chase where upon the Iroquois turned and made desperate fight with the foremost retreating again as soon as the others came up. This they repeated several times and then made their escape after killing a number of the best French soldiers. Their leader in this affair was a famous half-breed known as the Flemish Bastard who was styled by Reginot, quote, an abomination of sin and a monster produced between a heretic Dutch father and a pagan mother. In the forests far north of Three Rivers dwelt the tribe called the Attica Mig or Nation of the White Fish. From their remote position and the difficult nature of the intervening country they thought themselves safe but a band of Iroquois marching on snowshoes a distance of twenty days journey northward from the St. Lawrence fell upon one of their camps in the winter and made a general butchery of the inmates. The tribe however still held its ground for a time and being all good Catholics gave their missionary father Bouteau an urgent invitation to visit them in their own country. Bouteau who had long been stationed at Three Rivers was in ill health and for years had rarely been free from some form of bodily suffering. Nevertheless he acceded to their request and before the opening of spring made a remarkable journey on snowshoes into the depths of this frozen wilderness. In the year following he repeated the undertaking. With him were a large party of Attica Mig and several Frenchmen. Game was exceedingly scarce and they were forced by hunger to separate a Huron convert and a Frenchman named Fontarabie remaining with the missionary. The snows had melted and all the streams were swollen. The three travelers in a small birch canoe pushed their way up a turbulent river where falls and rapids were so numerous that many times daily they were forced to carry their bark vessel and their baggage through forests and thickets and over rocks and precipices. On the 10th of May they made two such portages and soon after reaching a third fall again lifted their canoe from the water. They toiled through the naked forest among the wet black trees over tangled roots, green spongy mosses, mouldering leaves and rotten prostrate trunks while the cataract foamed amidst the rocks hard by. The Indian led the way with the canoe on his head while Bouteau and the other Frenchmen followed with the baggage. Suddenly they were set upon by a troop of Iroquois who had crouched behind thickets, rocks, and fallen trees to wailay them. The Huron was captured before he had time to fly. Bouteau and the Frenchmen tried to escape but were instantly shot down, the Jesuit receiving two balls in the breast. The Iroquois rushed upon them, mangled their bodies with tomahawks and swords, stripped them, and then flung them into the torrent. End of Chapter 31, Recording by David Bogosian, Brooklyn, USA. Chapter 32 of The Jesuits in North America. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by David Bogosian, The Jesuits in North America in the 17th century by Francis Parkman. Chapter 32, 1650 to 1666, The Last of the Hurons. Iroquois bullets and tomahawks had killed the Hurons by hundreds, but famine and disease had killed incomparably more. The miseries of the starving crowd on Eel St. Joseph had been shared in an equal degree by smaller bands who had wintered in remote and secret retreats of the wilderness. Of those who survived that season of death, many were so weakened that they could not endure the hardships of a wandering life, which was new to them. The Hurons lived by agriculture, their fields and crops were destroyed, and they were so hunted from place to place that they could rarely till the soil. Game was very scarce and without agriculture, the country could support only a scanty and scattered population, like that which maintained a struggling existence in the wilderness of the lower St. Lawrence. The mortality among the exiles was prodigious. It is a matter of some interest to trace the fortunes of the shattered fragments of a nation once prosperous, and in its own eyes and those of its neighbors, powerful and great. None were left alive within their ancient domain. Some had sought refuge among the neutrals and the Eres and shared the disasters which soon overwhelmed those tribes. Others succeeded in reaching Andastus, while the inhabitants of two towns, St. Michel and St. Jean-Baptiste, had recourse to an expedient which seems equally strange and desperate, but which was in accordance with Indian practices. They contrived to open a communication with the Seneca nation of the Iroquois and promised to change their nationality and turn Seneca's as the price of their lives. The victors accepted the proposal and the inhabitants of these two towns joined by a few other Hurons migrated in a body to the Seneca country. They were not distributed among different villages but were allowed to form a town by themselves where they were afterwards joined by some prisoners of the neutral nation. They identified themselves with the Iroquois in all but religion, holding so fast to their faith that 18 years after, a Jesuit missionary found that many of them were still good Catholics. The division of the Hurons called the Tobacco Nation, favored by their isolated position among the mountains, had held their ground longer than the rest, but at length they too were compelled to fly together with such other Hurons as had taken refuge with them. They made their way northward and settled on the island of Machilla Mackenac, where they were joined by the Ottawa's who, with other Algonquins, had been driven by fear of the Iroquois from the western shores of Lake Huron and the banks of the river Ottawa. At Machilla Mackenac the Hurons and their allies were again attacked by the Iroquois, and after remaining several years they made another remove and took possession of the islands at the mouth of the Green Bay of Lake Michigan. Even here their old enemy did not leave them in peace, whereupon they fortified themselves on the mainland and afterwards migrated southward and westward. This brought them in contact with the Illinois, an Algonquin people at that time very numerous, but who like many other tribes at this epoch were doomed to a rapid diminution from wars with other savage nations. Continuing their migration westward the Hurons and Ottawa's reached the Mississippi where they fell in with the Sioux. They soon quarreled with those fierce children of the prairie who drove them from their country. They retreated to the southwestern extremity of Lake Superior and settled on Pointe Saint Esprit or Shagwamagon Point near the islands of the Twelve Apostles. As the Sioux continued to harass them they left this place about the year 1671 and retreated to Machilla Mackenac where they settled not on the island but on the neighboring Pointe Saint Ignace now Grams Point on the north side of the Strait. The greater part of them afterwards removed fence to Detroit and Sandusky where they lived under the name of Wyandots and told within the present century maintaining a marked influence over the surrounding Algonquins. They bore an active part on the side of the French in the war which ended in the reduction of Canada and they were the most formidable enemies of the English in the Indian War under Pontiac. The government of the United States at length removed them to reserves on the western frontier where a remnant of them may still be found. Thus it appears that the Wyandots whose name is so conspicuous in the history of our border wars are descendants of the ancient Hurons and chiefly of that portion of them called the Tobacco Nation. When Ragnot and his party left Eels Saint Joseph for Quebec the greater number of the Hurons chose to remain. They took possession of the stone fort which the French had abandoned and where with reasonable vigilance they could maintain themselves against attack. In the succeeding autumn a small Iroquois war party had the audacity to cross over to the island and build a fort of felled trees in the woods. The Hurons attacked them but the invaders made so fierce a defense that they kept their assailants at bay and at length retreated with little or no loss. Soon after a much larger brand of Onondaga Iroquois approaching undiscovered built a fort on the mainland opposite the island but concealed from sight in the forest. Here they waited to waylay any party of Hurons who might venture ashore. A Huron war chief named Etienne Anahotaha whose life is described as a succession of conflicts and adventures and who is said to have been always in luck landed with a few companions and fell into an ambush gate of the Iroquois. He prepared to defend himself when they called out to him that they came not as enemies but as friends and that they brought wampum belts and presents to preside the Hurons to forget the past, go back with them to their country and become their adopted countrymen and live with them as one nation. Etienne suspected treachery but concealed his distrust and advanced toward the Iroquois with an air of the utmost confidence. They received him with open arms and pressed him to accept their invitation but he replied that there were older and wiser men among the Hurons whose councils all the people followed and that they ought to lay the proposal before them. He proceeded to advise them to keep him as a hostage and send over his companions with some of their chiefs to open the negotiation. His apparent frankness completely deceived them and they insisted that he himself should go to the Huron village while his companions remained as hostages. He set out accordingly with three of the principal Iroquois. When he reached the village he gave the whoop of one who brings good tidings and proclaimed with a loud voice that the hearts of their enemies had changed, that the Iroquois would become their countrymen and brothers and that they should exchange their miseries for a life of peace and plenty in a fertile and prosperous land. The whole Huron population full of joyful excitement crowded about him and the three envoys who were conducted to the principal lodge and feasted on the best that the village could supply. Etienne seized the opportunity to take aside four or five of the principal chiefs and secretly tell them his suspicion that the Iroquois were plotting to compass their destruction under cover of overtures of peace and he proposed that they should meet treachery with treachery. He then explained his plan which was highly approved by his auditors who begged him to charge himself with the execution of it. Etienne now caused criers to proclaim through the village that everyone should get ready to emigrate in a few days to the country of their new friends. The squads began their preparations at once and all was bustle and alacrity for the Hurons themselves were no less deceived than were the Iroquois envoys. During one or two succeeding days many messages and visits passed between the Hurons and the Iroquois whose confidence was such that 37 of their best warriors at length came over in a body to the Huron village. Etienne's time had come. He and the chiefs who were in the secret gave the word to the Huron warriors who at a signal raised the war whoop rushed upon their visitors and cut them to pieces. One of them who lingered for a time owned before he died that Etienne's suspicions were just and that they had designed nothing less than the massacre or capture of all the Hurons. Three of the Iroquois immediately before the slaughter began had received from Etienne a warning of their danger in time to make their escape. The year before he had been captured with Brebuph and Lalaman at the town of St. Louis and had owed his life to these three warriors to whom he now paid back the debt of gratitude. They carried tidings of what had befallen to their countrymen on the mainland who aghast at the catastrophe fled homeward in a panic. Here was a sweet morsel of vengeance. The miseries of the Hurons were lighted up with a brief gleam of joy but it behooved them to make a timely retreat from their island before the Iroquois came to exact a bloody retribution. Towards spring while the lake was still frozen many of them escaped on the ice while another party afterwards followed in canoes. A few who had neither strength to walk nor canoes to transport them perforce remained behind and were soon massacred by the Iroquois. The fugitives directed their course to the Grand Minatoulan island where they remained for a short time and then to the number of about 400 descended the Ottawa and rejoined their countrymen who had gone to Quebec the year before. These united parties joined from time to time by a few other fugitives formed a settlement on land belonging to the Jesuits near the southwestern extremity of the Isle of Orleans immediately below Quebec. Here the Jesuits built a fort like that on Eel St. Joseph with a chapel and a small house for the missionaries while the bark dwellings of the Hurons were clustered around the protecting ramparts. Tools and seeds were given them and they were encouraged to cultivate the soil. Gradually they rallied from their dejection and the mission settlement was beginning to wear an appearance of thrift. When in 1656 the Iroquois made a descent upon them and carried off a large number of captives under the very canon of Quebec the French not daring to fire upon the invaders lest they should take revenge upon the Jesuits who were at that time in their country. This calamity was four years after followed by another when the best of the Huron warriors including their leader the crafty and valiant Etienne Annaotaha were slain fighting side by side with the French in the desperate conflict of the Long Sault. The attenuated colony replenished by some straggling bands of the same nation and still numbering several hundred persons was removed to Quebec after the inroad in 1656 and lodged in a square enclosure of palisades close to the fort. Here they remained about 10 years when the danger of the times having diminished they were again removed to a place called Notre Dame des Foyes now Saint-Foye three or four miles west of Quebec. Six years after when the soil was impoverished and the wood in the neighborhood exhausted they again changed their abode and under the offices of the Jesuits who owned the land settled at Old Lorette nine miles from Quebec. Chaminot was at this time their missionary it may be remembered that he had professed special devotion to our Lady of Lorette who in his boyhood had cured him as he believed of a distressing malady. He had always cherished the idea of building a chapel in honour of her in Canada after the model of the Holy House of Lorette which as all the world knows is the house wherein Saint Joseph dwelt with his virgin spouse and which angels bore through the air from the holy land to Italy where it remains an object of pilgrimage to this day. Chaminot opened his plan to his brother Jesuits who were delighted with it and the chapel was begun at once not without the intervention of Miracle to aid in raising necessary funds. It was built of brick like its original of which it was an exact facsimile and it stood in the center of a quadrangle the four sides of which were formed by the bark dwellings of the Hurons ranged with perfect order in straight lines. Hither came many pilgrims from Quebec and more distant settlements and here our Lady granted to her suppliance says Chaminot many miraculous favors in so much that quote it would require an entire book to describe them all end quote but the Hurons were not destined to remain permanently even here for before the end of the century they removed to a place four miles distance now called New Lorette or Indian Lorette. It was a wild spot covered with the primitive forest and seemed by a deep and tortuous ravine where the Saint Charles foams white as snow drift over the black ledges and where the sunlight struggles through matted boughs of the pine and fur to bask for brief moments on the mossy rocks or flash on the hurrying waters. On a plateau beside the torrent another chapel was built to our Lady and another Huron town spring up and here to this day the tourist finds the remnant of a lost people harmless weavers of baskets and sewers of moccasins the Huron blood fast bleaching out of them as with every generation they mingle and fade away in the French population around. End of chapter 32 recording by David Bogosian Brooklyn USA chapter 33 of the Jesuits in North America this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org the Jesuits in North America in the 17th century by Francis Partman chapter 33 1650 to 1670 the destroyers it was well for the European colonies above all for those of England that the wisdom of the Iroquois was but the wisdom of savages their sagacity is past denying it showed itself in many ways but it was not equal to a comprehension of their own situation and that of their race could they have read their destiny and curbed their mad ambition they might have leagued with themselves four great communities of kindred lineage to resist the encroachments of civilization and oppose a barrier of fire to the spread of the young colonies of the east but their organization and their intelligence were merely the instruments of a blind frenzy which impelled them to destroy those whom they might have made their allies in a common cause of the four kindred communities two at least the Hurons and the neutrals were probably superior in numbers to the Iroquois either one of these with union and leadership could have held its ground against them and the two united could easily have crippled them beyond the power of doing mischief but these so-called nations were mere aggregations of villages and families with nothing that deserved to be called a government they were very liable to panics because the part attacked by an enemy could never rely with confidence on prompt sucker from the rest and when once broken they could not be rallied because they had no center around which to gather the Iroquois on the other hand had an organization with which the ideas and habits of several generations were interwoven and they also had sagacious leaders for peace and war they discussed all questions of policy with the coolest deliberation and knew how to turn to profit even imperfections in their plan of government which seemed to promise only weakness and discord thus any nation or any large town of their confederacy could make a separate war or a separate peace with a foreign nation or any part of it some member of the league as for example the kayugas would make a covenant a friendship with the enemy and while the infatuated victims were thus lulled into a delusive security the war parties of the other nations often joined by the kayuga warriors would overwhelm them by a sudden onset but it was not by their craft nor by their organization which for military purposes was wretchedly feeble that this handful of savages gained a bloody supremacy they carried all before them because they were animated throughout as one man by the same audacious pride and insatiable rage for conquest like other indians they waged war on a plan altogether democratic that is each man fought or not as he saw fit and they owed their unity and vigor of action to the homicidal frenzy that urged them all alike the neutral nation had taken no part on either side in the war of extermination against the herons and their towns were sanctuaries where either of the contending parties might take asylum on the other hand they made fierce war on their western neighbors and a few years before destroyed with atrocious cruelties a large fortified town of the nation of fire their turn was now come and their victims found fit avengers for no sooner were the herons broken up and dispersed than the iraqoi without waiting to take breath turned their fury on the neutrals at the end of the autumn of sixteen fifty they assaulted and took one of their chief towns said to have contained at the time more than sixteen hundred men besides women and children and early in the following spring they took another town the slaughter was prodigious and the victors drove back troops of captives for butchery or adoption it was the death blow of the neutrals they abandoned their corn fields and villages in the wildest terror and disperse themselves abroad in forests which could not yield sustenance to such a multitude they perished by thousands and from that time forth the nation ceased to exist during two or three succeeding years the iraqoi contented themselves with harassing the french and algonquins but in sixteen fifty three they made treaties of peace each of the five nations for itself and the colonists and their red allies had an interval of rest in the following may and on indaga orator on a peace visit to montreal said in a speech to the governor our young men will no more fight the french but they are too warlike to stay at home and this summer we shall invade the country of the iris the earth trembles and quakes in that quarter but here all remains calm early in the autumn father lamoin who had taken advantage of the peace to go on a mission to the on indagas returned with the tidings that the iraqoi were all on fire with this new enterprise and were about to march against the iris with eighteen hundred warriors the occasion of this new war is said to have been as follows the iris who will be remembered dwelt on the south of the lake named after them had made a treaty of peace with the seneca's and in the preceding year had sent a deputation of thirty of their principal men to confirm it while they were in the great seneca town it happened that one of the nation was killed in a casual quarrel with an iri whereupon his countrymen rose in a fury and murdered the thirty deputies then ensued a brisk war of reprisals in which not only the seneca's but the other iraqoi nations took part the iris captured a famous on indaga chief and were about to burn him when he succeeded in convincing them of the wisdom of a course of conciliation and they resolved to give him to the sister of one of the murdered deputies to take the place of her lost brother the sister by indian law had it in her choice to receive him with a fraternal embrace or to burn him but though she was absent at the time no one doubted that she would choose the gentler alternative accordingly he was clothed in gay attire and all the town fell to feasting in honor of his adoption in the midst of the festivity the sister returned to the amazement of the iri chiefs she rejected with indignation their proffer of a new brother declared that she would be revenged for her loss and insisted that the prisoner should forthwith be burned the chiefs remonstrated in vain representing the danger in which such a procedure would involve the nation the female fury was inexorable and the unfortunate prisoner stripped of his vessel robes was bound to the stake and put to death he warned his tormentors with his last breath that they were burning not only him but the whole iri nation since his countrymen would take a fiery vengeance for his fate his words proved true for no sooner was his story spread abroad among the iraqoi than the confederacy resounded with warsongs from end to end and the warriors took the field under their two great warships notwithstanding lamoins report their number according to the iraqoi account did not exceed 1200 they embarked in canoes on the lake at their approach the iris fell back withdrawing into the forest towards the west till they were gathered into one body when fortifying themselves with palisades and felled trees they awaited the approach of the invaders by the lowest estimate the iris numbered 2000 warriors besides women and children but this is the report of the iraqoi who were naturally disposed to exaggerate the force of their enemies they approached the iri fort and two of their chiefs dressed like frenchmen advanced and called on those within to surrender one of them had lately been baptized by lamoin and he shouted to the iris that if they did not yield in time they were all dead men for the master of life was on the side of the iraqoi the iris answered with yells of derision who is this master of your lives they cried our hatchets and our right arms are the masters of ours the iraqoi rushed to the assault but were met with a shower of poisoned arrows which killed and wounded many of them and drove the rest back they waited a while and then attacked again with unabated metal this time they carried their bark canoes over their heads like huge shields to protect them from the storm of arrows then planting them upright and mounting them by the crossbars like ladders scaled the barricade with such impetuous fury that the iris were thrown into a panic those escaped who could but the butchery was frightful and from that day the iris as a nation were no more the victors paid dear for their conquest their losses were so heavy that they were forced to remain for two months in the iri country to bury their dead and nurse their wounded one enemy of their own race remained the andastis this nation appears to have been inferior in numbers to either the herons the neutrals or the iris but they cost their assailants more trouble than all these united the mohawks seem at first to have borne the brunt of the andaste war and between the years sixteen fifty and sixteen sixty they were so roughly handled by these stubborn adversaries that they were reduced from the height of audacious insolence to the depths of detection the remaining four nations of the Iroquois League now took up the quarrel and fared scarcely better than the mohawks in the spring of sixteen sixty two eight hundred of their warriors set out for the andaste country to strike a decisive blow but when they had reached the great town of their enemies they saw that they had received both aid and counsel from the neighboring swedish colonists the town was fortified by a double palisade flanked by two bastions on which it is said several small pieces of cannon were mounted clearly it was not to be carried by assault as the invaders had promised themselves their only hope was in treachery and accordingly twenty five of their warriors gained entrance on pretense of settling the terms of a piece here again ensued a grievous disappointment for the andastes seized them all built high scaffolds visible from without and tortured them to death inside of their countrymen who they're upon to camped in miserable discomforture the Seneca's by far the most numerous of the five Iroquois nations now found themselves attacked in turn and this too at a time when they were full of despondency at the ravages of the smallpox the French reaped a profit from their misfortunes for the disheartened savages made them overtures of peace and beg that they would settle in their country teach them to fortify their towns supply them with arms and ammunition and bring black robes to show them the road to heaven the andaste war became a war of inroads and skirmishes under which the weaker party gradually wasted away though it sometimes won laurels at the expense of its adversary thus in sixteen seventy two a party of twenty Seneca's and forty Cayugas went against the andastes they were at a considerable distance the one from the other the Cayugas being in advance when the Seneca's were set upon by about sixty young andastes of the class known as burnt knives or soft metals because as yet they had taken no scalps indeed they are described as mere boys fifteen or sixteen years old they killed one of the Seneca's captured another and put the rest to flight after which flushed with their victory they attacked the Cayugas with the utmost fury and routed them completely killing eight of them and wounding twice that number who as is reported by the Jesuit then in the Cayuga towns came home half dead with gashes of knives and hatchets may God preserve the andastes exclaims the father and prosper their arms that the Iroquois may be humbled and we and our missions left in peace none but they he elsewhere adds concurred the pride of the Iroquois the only strength of the andastes however was in their courage for at this time they were reduced to three hundred fighting men and about the year sixteen seventy five they were finally overborn by the Seneca's yet they were not wholly destroyed for a remnant of this valiant people continue to subsist under the name of Conestoga's for nearly a century until in seventeen sixty three they were butchered as already mentioned by the white ruffians known as the Paxton boys the bloody triumphs of the Iroquois were complete they had made a solitude and called it peace all the surrounding nations of their own lineage were conquered and broken up while neighboring Algonquin tribes were suffered to exist only on condition of paying a yearly tribute of Wampum the Confederacy remained a wedge thrust between the growing colonies of France and England but what was the state of the conquerors their triumphs had cost them dear as early as the year sixteen sixty a writer evidently well informed reports that their entire force had been reduced to twenty two hundred warriors while of these not more than twelve hundred were of the true Iroquois stock the rest was a medley of adopted prisoners Hurons neutrals iris and Indians of various Algonquin tribes still their aggressive spirit was unsubdued these incorrigible warriors pushed their murderous raids to Hudson's Bay Lake Superior the Mississippi and the Tennessee they were the tyrants of all the intervening wilderness and they remained for more than half a century a terror and a scourge to the afflicted colonists of new France end of chapter thirty three chapter thirty four of the Jesuits in North America this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org the Jesuits in North America in the seventeenth century by Francis Parkman chapter thirty four the end with the fall of the Hurons fell the best hope of the Canadian mission they and the stable and populous communities around them had been the rude material from which the Jesuit would have formed his Christian empire in the wilderness but one by one these kindred peoples were uprooted and swept away while the neighboring Algonquins to whom they had been a bulwark were involved with them in a common ruin the land of promise was turned into a solitude and a desolation there was still work in hand it is true vast regions to explore and countless heathens to snatch from perdition but these for the most part were remote and scattered hordes from whose conversion it was vain to look for the same solid and decisive results in a measure the occupation of the Jesuits was gone some of them went home well resolved writes the father to return to the combat at the first sound of the trumpet while of those who remained about twenty a number several soon fell victims to famine hardship and the Iroquois a few more years and canada ceased to be a mission political and commercial interest gradually became ascendant and the story of Jesuit propagandism was interwoven with their civil and military annals here then closes this wild and bloody act of the great drama of new France and now let the curtain fall while we ponder its meaning the cause of the failure of the Jesuits is obvious the guns and tomahawks of the Iroquois were the ruin of their hopes could they have curbed or converted those ferocious bands it is little less than certain that their dreams would have become a reality savages tamed not civilized for that was scarcely possible would have been distributed in communities through the valleys of the great lakes and the Mississippi ruled by priests in the interest of catholicity and of France their habits of agriculture would have been developed and their instincts of mutual slaughter repressed the swift decline of the Indian population would have been arrested and it would have been made through the fur trade a source of prosperity to new France unmolested by Indian enemies and fed by a rich commerce she would have put forth a vigorous growth true to her far reaching and adventurous genius she would have occupied the west with traders settlers and garrisons and cut up the virgin wilderness into fives while as yet the colonies of england were but a weak and broken line along the shore of the Atlantic and when at last the great conflict came england and liberty would have been confronted not by a depleted antagonist still feeble from the exhaustion of a starved and persecuted infancy but by an athletic champion of the principles of Richelieu and of Loyola liberty may thank the Iroquois that by their incessant fury the plans of her adversaries were brought to naught and apparel and a woe averted from her future they ruin the trade which was the lifeblood of new France they stopped the current of her arteries and made all her early years a misery and a terror not that they changed your destinies the contest on this continent between liberty and absolutism was never doubtful but the triumph of the one would have been dearly bought and the downfall of the other incomplete populations formed in the ideas and habits of a feudal monarchy and controlled by a hierarchy profoundly hostile to the freedom of thought would have remained a hindrance and a stumbling block in the way of that majestic experiment of which America is the field the Jesuits saw their hopes struck down and their faith though not shaken was sorely tried the providence of God seemed in their eyes dark and inexplicable but from the standpoint of liberty that providence is clear as the sun at noon meanwhile let those who have prevailed yield due honor to the defeated their virtues shine amidst the rubbish of error like diamonds and gold in the gravel of the torrent but now new scenes succeed and other actors enter on the stage a hearty and valiant band molded to endure and dare the discoverers of the great west end of chapter 34 end of the Jesuits in North America in the seventeenth century by Francis Parkman recorded by David Lawrence October two thousand and nine in Brampton Ontario