 Chapter 7 of Buddhism and Buddhists in China This is a LibriVox recording. For more information or to volunteer, please go to LibriVox.org. Recording by Philippa Willits Chapter 7 Buddhism and the Future Life Before the advent of Buddhism, the Chinese had only a vague idea regarding life after death. The Land and Water classic mentions the Duxou mountain in the eastern sea, under which spirits of the dead live, the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shendu and Yulei, who are in general control of the demons. In some parts of China, the names or pictures of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise, presided over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the Kunlun Mountains, and later in the islands of the eastern sea. This heaven, however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a complete purgatory in heaven known to everyone in China. Chapter 1 The Buddhist Purgatory This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious equipment. Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every individual. The temple of the city guardian, found in every world city, has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the temples of Taishan, there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the seventh month, on the fifteenth day, about August, a special service is held for the souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a general service about October for the souls of those who died of violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war, many services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are often active, powerful plays, whose scenes are laid in Hades. This propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind. Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts, each surrounded by small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in charge of Yen Lo or Yamma. Yamma was once in charge of the first court, but his tender heart pitted the souls who came before him and sent them back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the fifth court. When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools, bridges or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good books, or to release animals, to take care of aided parents or to bury them suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices and that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done. Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendance with bulls' heads and horses' faces, to a tower whence they may see their native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow, with a perimeter of 27 miles. Its height is 490 feet. It is guarded by walls of sword-trees. Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have done, return to life. Only souls, judged to be evil, see their village from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can hear their conversation. They realise how they disobeyed the teachings of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality. They see how they planned a new marriage, although already married, how they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts, putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their village, they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere, but their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away, the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower all passes before them as a lurid dream, and they are stricken in heart. About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground, and fierce animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake. His body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly devoured. In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner, one, those who do not reverence the gods and demons, and who doubt the existence of rewards and punishments, two, those who hurt and kill living beings, three, those who break their vows to do good, four, those who resort to heterodox practices, and vainly hope to attain eternal life, five, those who upbraid good men, fear the wicked, and hate men because they do not die speedily, six, those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them, seven, men who force women, and women who seduce young men, and all who have libidinous desires, eight, those who gain profit for themselves by injuring others, nine, the stingy on those who absolutely disregard others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need when they can do so without injury to themselves, ten, those who steal and put the crime upon others, eleven, those who require favours with hate, twelve, those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion, thirteen, those who tempt others by deceit, fourteen, those who involve others in their squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out, fifteen, those who stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent and slander others, sixteen, those who hate good and virtuous men. Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners, the Fifth Court deals with other types of wicked people, those who do not believe in rewards and punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books that urge men to be good and worship the great dipper but persist in eating meat, those who hate men, who repeat sutras and incantations and take part in religious ceremonies but do not fast beforehand, who slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions, who know how to read but refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and punishments, who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely set fire to trees and underbush or are careless with fire in their own houses, who shoot arrows at animals with the intent to kill, who urge and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with themselves, who throw tiles and stones over neighbouring walls, poison fish in the river, fire guns or make nets or traps for birds, who sow salt on the ground, who do not bury dead snakes very deep and thus cause death to those who dig, who cause men to dig the frozen ground in winter or spring, the vapours of earth chills such diggers to death, who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbours to move the kitchen stove, who appropriate public highways, lands, closed wells and stop-cutters, those who have committed any of the above sins are taken to the tower whence they can see their own village, and then are consigned to the great crying hell, rower of her that is, the fourth of the buddhist hot hells. Footnote Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a country like India, severe cold is a serious torture, hence they go to their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need punishment. Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month, and take a vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them, the associating with heretics, committing fornication with women and then poisoning them, committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring the good name of others, stealing, requiting favours with hatred, and hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins. Part two is social value. The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the fifth court, and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all and social acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is against such acts, and in favour of repressing them on every occasion. Part three, the Buddhist heaven. Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory, but also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven is Amitabha, or in Chinese, Omitofo, with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess of mercy, is usually associated. Amitabha is explained as meaning boundless age. The original meaning is boundless light, which suggests a Persian origin with Manichaean influences. The translations of the Amitabha sutras were wholly made by natives of Central Asia. Amitabha is one of the thousand Buddhas. He is regarded as the reflex of Sakyamuni, and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk called Dharmakara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he presented to Lokesh Vararaja, asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha and a Buddha country ought to be. Lokesh Vararaja imparted this knowledge. Then the monk, after meditation, returned having made 48 vows that he would not become a Buddha until all living beings should attain salvation in his heaven. The 18th vow expresses his ideal. O Bhagavad, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard my name, when I have obtained Bodhi, knowledge, have meditated on me with serene thoughts, if at the moment of their death, after having approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge. A few extracts from the Amitabha viewer sutra will illustrate the Buddhist idea of life in this pure land. In the western region, beyond 100,000 myriads of Buddhist lands, there is a world, great happiness by name. This land has a Buddha called Amitabha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of pure delight. The land of pure delight has seven precious fountains, full of water containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver, crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished agates. In the pools are variously coloured, light emitting lotus flowers as large as cartwheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure. The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold. Morning and evening, during six hours, it rains the wonderful celestial flowers, erythrina indica. All the inhabitants of this land on clear mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the 100,000 myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country at mealtime. When they have eaten, they go away again. This country possesses every kind of wonderful, vericoloured birds. The white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the swarika, a long-legged bird, the kalavinka, a sweet-voiced bird. All these birds, morning and evening, during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful, harmonious sound. Their song produces the five indria, roots of faith, energy, memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom. The five bala, the powers of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom. The seven bodhyanga, the seven degrees of intelligence, memory, discrimination, energy, tranquility, ecstatic contemplation, indifference. And the eight portions of the correct path maga, the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and will, the ability of producing any sound uttered in the universe, vow of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue, and such doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha, the Buddha, the law and the community of monks. As to those who enter this land, it says, all living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that land. How can they reach the pure land? All very good men will gather in that place. He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of Amitabha, takes this name and holds it in his mind, one, two, three, four, five, six or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted, to that man at death Amitabha will appear. His heart will not be disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of pure delight of Amitabha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that land. Part four, the harmonisation of these ideas with ancestor worship. The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the pure land and through transmigration, was readily accepted in China. Both the new ideas and the disciplines through which to realise them were eagerly adopted and have held their place to this day. In other lands the creation of a heaven and a Hades has weakened the grip of ancestor worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system, and along with it the supreme duty of filial piety, were fostered by the state and Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of China's civilization, reinforced by the great difficulty of communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China. Today the improvement of communication and the introduction of the industrial system of the West, with the individual emphasis of modern education, are factors which are weakening the family system and with it ancestral worship. End of chapter seven, Buddhism and the future life. This recording is in the public domain. Chapter eight of Buddhism and Buddhists in China. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Buddhism and Buddhists in China by Louis Hodus. Chapter eight. The spiritual values emphasized by Buddhism in China. Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery dedicated to the goddess of mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple within its courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room with its tables chairs and clock shows the influence of the modern world. Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of this section. One. The three-fold classification of men under Buddhism. What does Buddhism do for men? There are, in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class live among material things. They are occupied with possessions. Their life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as real. A second higher class regards ideas as realities. They are not entangled in the maze of things but are confused by ideas, ascribing reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation have freed themselves from the thralldom of ideas and can enter the sixteen heavens. Two. Salvation for the common man. What can Buddhism do for the lowest class? For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him ten evils which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the body, namely not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery. Four belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk. Three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief. Is not this entirely negative? Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite as essential as the refraining from evil. What energizing power does Buddhism provide? First is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and does that which is good. Then there is transmigration, with the danger of transmigration into beasts and insects. Again there are the rewards and the paradise of Amitabha. Moreover there is even the possibility, not only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's parents and relatives, and shortening their stay in purgatory. Three, the place of faith. Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitabha? Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says, If there be any one who commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five deadly sins, and the like, that man, being himself stupid and guilty of many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death, he may meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in various ways, will preach to him the excellent law and teach him the remembrance of Buddha. But being harassed by the pains, he will have no time to think of Buddha. What hope has such a man? Even such a man has hope. The sutra says, Some good friends will say to him, Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter the name of Buddha Amitabha. Let him do so serenely with his voice uninterrupted. Let him be continually thinking of Buddha, until he has completed ten times the thought, repeating, Nama umi to fu. I put my trust in Buddha. On the strength of his merit of uttering Buddha's name, he will, during every repetition, expiate the sins which involve him in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while dying, see a golden lotus flower, like the disc of the sun appearing before his eyes. In a moment he will be born in the world of highest happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus flower will unfold, thereupon the bodhisattvas, avalokitesvaras, and mahasattvas, raising their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real state of all the elements of nature, and the law of the expiation of sins. Does faith save such a man? Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of Amitabha. Amitabha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of Amitabha. 4. Salvation of the Second Class How do those of the Second Class attain salvation? The men of the Second Class regard ideas as realities. They are not entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas regarding them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no fear and become saints and sages. Among men saints and sages occupy a high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds located immediately above the earth. 5. Salvation for the Highest Class And the Third Class This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of meditation, for dhyanas, can enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. dhyana means contemplation. In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration, heavens were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation. By the practice of the four arupadhyanas, that degree of abstract contemplation from which all sensations are absent, they enter the four highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by form. These heavens are the anti-room of nirvana. What is the driving power in all this? It is virya or energy. 6. Heaven and purgatory Do heaven and purgatory exist? Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really, heaven is in the mind of Amitabha, and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains of men. Does anything exist? Nagarjuna says there is no production, no destruction, no annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in, and no going forth. 7. Sin Does sin exist? In the mind of the real Buddhist, sin and virtue are different aspects of the all. Sin is illusion, virtue is illusion. There is a higher unity in which they are reconciled. 8. Nirvana Do you know of anyone who attained nirvana? Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a state into which one can enter here. Can you express this experience in words? Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first, I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and surpassing the power of language to express. 9. The Philosophical Background What is behind this universe? Underlying this universe of phenomena and change, there is a unity. It is the basis of all being. It is within all being, and all being rests in it. It is because of this common background that men are able to apprehend it. This universal basis we call dharma, or law. Its characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to disease and death, and that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment. That all Buddhas, by treading the same way of perfection, will attain the highest freedom. You speak of the Buddhist Trinity. Yes, we have the Dharmakaya. This is the essence body, the ground of all being taking many forms. Buddhas, bodhisattvas, spirits, angels, men, and even demons. It is impersonal, all pervasive. It may be called the first person. The second person is the sambhogakaya, the body of bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is nirmalakaya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth. Some identify this Trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist Trinity, would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal background of universal being. The second corresponds to the glorified Christ, and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart, either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit. Do you believe in the salvation of all beings? Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become Buddhas. Then, turning to a friend of mine, the speaker said, What have you done in Buddhism? The friend answered, I have written and translated many books. I do not mean that, he answered. What work have you done? The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he said, Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state, and you will find ineffable enlightenment and joy. The sun was setting behind the western hills. The blaire of trumpets sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of picking, returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the rushing, restless crowd, and still we felt the calm of another world. Has not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime? 10. What Buddhism has to give An important government official, obliged to deal with many vexatious requests and demands, declared, I could not get through my day's work. If I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did when he became enlightened, he was asked what he did when he meditated or prayed. Nothing at all. Well, about what do you think? Of nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation. Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity if I did not stop thinking and enter into the void, once we all came and into which we are all going to drop back. His Christian inquirer was still unsatisfied by the Buddha's description of his prayer life and pressed for further details. What happens when you meditate or pray? Nothing happens, I tell you, except that I experience a peace which the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers of Verdun. They shall not pass. Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there, but the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is let it pass. You cannot keep anything for very long, and prayer or meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately. Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel and enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities. Everything is vanity. Why worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless peace of nirvana. Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought is the difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly, Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come to her when there is anyone sick or in trouble. So I say to her, Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian. But I think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is mostly about other people. But then she does have the children in the house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it gives you such a wonderful peace. BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIS IN CHINA BY LOUIS HOLUS CHAPTER IX PRESENT DAY BUDDHISM 1. PERIODS OF BUDDHIST HISTORY The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods. Buddhism entered China as we have seen in the second century BC. The first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith, ended in 420 AD. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, 618 AD. The third, the period of establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties in 960 AD. The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day. 2. THE PROGRESS OF THE LAST 25 YEARS There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a tide or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893, Dharmapala, an Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India, to restore Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange appearance, and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government, and at once inquired about the attitude of the government towards such an innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai. Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided to confiscate Buddhist property, and to use the proceeds for the spread of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When, by 1906, the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she had once issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks took their departure. The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect. Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to serve as points of departure for a nationwide missionary work. The 21 demands made upon China included two significant items in the last group which the Chinese refused to sign. Article 2, Japanese hospitals, churches, and schools in the interior of China shall be granted the right of owning land. Article 7, China agrees that Japanese subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China. Under Japanese influence, there were established in 1907 at Nanking, under the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India. This project was discontinued after the death of Yang, on account of the lack of funds. When the Republic was established, Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was published, which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking. A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and propaganda were increased. But Yuan Shi Kai issued 27 regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly dampened the ardor of the reformers. The World War, which accentuated the spirit of nationalism, had the added effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of new activity among them in China. 3. Present Activities While Buddhism may be standing still, or even dying in certain parts of China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kang-su and Che-kang, and in the large cities. Such revival and centers, subject to the influence of the modern world, shows that Buddhism in China, as in Japan, has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us consider some of these activities. A. The Reconstruction of Monasteries During the Taiping Rebellion, which devastated China in 1850 to 1865, the monasteries suffered with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered. There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze Valley, and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchao, which was destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in China, having about 2,000 monks. In Fuquan, several new monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of Chek-kang and Kang-su, in the large cities and about Peking, there are building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave of prosperity. Tai-su, one of the leaders of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal program for Buddhism in this time of Reconstruction. He proposes that there should be 576 central monasteries, 4,608 preaching places, 72 Buddhist hospitals, and 72 orphanages. B. Accessions Regarding the number of monks, it is almost impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate, based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000, and that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress. More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class. Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now abbots of monasteries, and are using their influence to build them up. All over China, there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating Buddhism by lecture and pen. C. Publications Quite as significant is the increase in the publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment at Nanjing, the Buddhist press in Yangqiao, and that in Peiqing. In these establishments about 900 different works are being published. The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai. Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chunghua Book Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with Western science and philosophy. In this enterprise, Japanese influence is visible. In 1921, a Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3,302 pages based on the Japanese dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also show the influence of Japanese scholarship. Among the publications have appeared two magazines, one published at Ningpo is called New Buddhism. This is struggling and may have to succumb. The other is known as The Sound of the Seatide, now published in Hangqiao. Moreover, in all the large cities, there are Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting political situation of their country. Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism by lectures in the monasteries in the cities of China. A few years ago, Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by a few pious devotees. Today, such addresses are advertised and are usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often, many women are found listening. Monks like Thaisu and Yuanying have a national reputation. Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are The Awakening of Faith and the Sudharma Pundarika Sutra. With the lectures goes the organization of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization, nor for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study, propagation, and service. Such societies, often short-lived, are springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally, the more ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies. F. Signs of Social Ambition Social work is a prominent feature of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assisted in red cross work. One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who are sick and in trouble is located at Hangkou. Around a central Buddhist temple is a modern built hospital, an orphanage, and several schools for poor children. It may not maintain Western standards of efficiency, but it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism. Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained. Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such schools are necessarily very primitive, and are struggling with the difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining the best hype of students. Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy, equality, freedom, progressiveness, and established faith, patience, and endurance. For all men it proposes, one, an education according to capacity. Two, a trade suited to ability. Three, an opportunity to develop one's powers. Four, a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the social wheel, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates universal progress, as to the universe it specifies as a goal, the bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment of all, and the realization of the spiritual universe. A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows. Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform this world of sin into a new world, dominated by the ideals of Buddhism. Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines and ideals abroad, so as to help mankind to become truly cultured. Four, the attitude of Tibetan Lamas. Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet, are feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was held in the Lama Temple at Peking, which attracted thousands of visitors. Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily hostile to Christianity, is shown by a letter written by the Kurung Tsering Lama of Kokonor District, to the Reverend T. Sorensen of Sejuan. I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the scriptures, and having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence, and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear. It is therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and people of small mental ability. The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very important. It is therefore evident, if we want this blessing openly manifested, we must believe in the religion of the Only Son of God. Being an earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider this letter lightly, with a hundred salutations. Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language. O thou supreme God and most precious Father, the truth above all religions, the ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds. Greater than wisdom, separated from birth and death, is his Son Christ the Lord shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder miraculously made. In this teaching I myself also believe, as your spirit is with heaven united, my soul undivided is seeking the truth. Jesus, the Savior's desire fulfilling. For the coming of the kingdom of heaven, I am praying. Happiness to all. Five. The Buddhist world versus the Christian world. Looking back over the last twenty-five years, we see rising quite distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past history, and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist world has much more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to unite the Mahayana and the Hinayana branches of Buddhism, and to spread Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present, the leadership of this movement is in Japan. It is, in part, a political movement. There is no question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese militarists. It is regarded by them as the advanced post of Western industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally, such leaders desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement. The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the world as a first-rate power. By this, not only will Japan's industry and commerce profit, but its spiritual values, must also be adapted to the world. The movement, then, has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and people are going to all parts of the world, and they carry with them the religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the past was one of the great religions of salvation, with an inspiring missionary message. It is, again, awakening to this task of evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious statesmen, the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give back what it has received in the past. At present, in Buddhist countries, there is a strong force working against this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still, even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to the life of the whole world. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Buddhism and Buddhists in China by Lewis Hodus Chapter 10 The Christian Approach to Buddhists 1. Questions which Buddhists ask Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places, a spirit of inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask, missionary, indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows. We put our trust in the three precious ones. In what do you trust? Is not your Shang Ti, named for God used in China, a being lower than Buddha, and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti, the tribal god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of purgatory? What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do you believe in the reality of the western paradise? How can one enter it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are the fruits of these proportions of merit, and what are they like? Tell me how to believe Christ. What kind of meditation do you perform? Is not Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive, because it provides for the salvation of all beings? Two, knowledge and sympathy. These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers. A knowledge of the life of Buddha, and of the doctrines of the Hinayana or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayana, should be in his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his historical learning. The best methods of pedagogy should guide his approach to men. Of course, he must speak the language of the Buddhist, not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the best work. This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is, imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view doctrines, values and actions, from the point of view of the Buddhist and his past history. He must have a genuine interest in, and a great capacity for, friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man and the larger friendship of Christ. 3. Emphasis on the aesthetic and Christianity A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place removed from the din of the street. Approached by a walk flanked with trees and flowers, and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness, which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality, and throw its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, would you adapt some of the symbols of the Chinese religions? He said, Many of those symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the content is Christian, then the symbols and emotions will become Christian. Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful and architecture, symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past, present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may well be emphasized in the future, as never before. 4. Emphasis on the mystical in Christianity Not long ago, a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him, and gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church regularly, and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping away from him, and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for consolation and peace, and found the same. Hard orthodoxy and morality so familiar to him in Confucianism. While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the One Truth. The idea of the One Truth, the false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the One True God. With this idea of the True God, a few other tenets of the Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached as the worship of idols. The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus Christ. This salvation is otherworldly to a large extent. The extreme emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership in which ensures bliss in the world beyond. The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts, abstinence from opium, liquor and tobacco in some churches, polygamy and the gross sins, attendance upon church services, contribution for the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry have also been required. The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there should be the cultivation of the presence of God and the soul by appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of Chinese art, literature and morality. This spiritual world of Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia and inspire the new art, literature and morality, which will be the world expression of a Christian universe. 5. Emphasis on the social elements in Christianity To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached to social emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise, do the Buddhists see the materialism and injustice of our social life? Christianity must relate itself to the modern world, as it is rising in China, and seek not merely to remedy a few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done through the church community, which has become conscious of itself, realizing its needs and wants, seeking an intelligent and systematic way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external, unrelated efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic, which begins the work of Reformation. 6. Emphasis on the person of Jesus Christ A. As a historical character The great asset of the missionary among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many of the Bodhisattvas, the saviors of the Buddhists, Jesus is a historical character. His life among men was a life of God among men. B. As the revealer God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This love, conscious of itself, finds its highest joy in the well-being of others. This love of God produced human life, which, springing from the lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of attaining the highest development. Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He lifts man to the fellowship with divine. Yet such a fellowship that man preserves his personality. Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to man. Christ revealed and founded the kingdom, a society of the saved, dominated by the spirit of the founder and making the spirit of love and service the organizing power in the world. C. As the savior Mahayana Buddhism emphasized saviorhood. Christ is the savior of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the merit of the savior and the saved. There is no question that merit has some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit nor do we help to save one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is not the salvation by knowledge or meditation or merit but by the interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours by the mystic and moral union of our life with his. As Paul says, that I may know him and the power of his resurrection and the fellowship of his suffering. Yet he is not the savior of the individual alone. He saves the community, the church. Only as his spirit permeates and dominates the community does he find his true self and the real salvation. D. As the eternal Son of God. The Mahayana system does not emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of Jesus Christ. The Logos existed in the very beginning. The Logos was with God. The Logos was God. To the Mahayanaist, this spiritual history is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place. The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel of John. He must see in Jesus Christ the real light which enlightens every man. He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahayana system. 7. How Christianity expresses itself in Buddhist minds In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks under the leadership of Reverend K. L. Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to Valves and they took the four following. I promised before the almighty and omniscient God that I with my whole heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this faith now and ever after. I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to the study of the true doctrine and break holy with the evil matters of the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly united with Christ. I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart devote myself to the great work to lead my brethren in the Buddhist association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only one who gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of higher Buddhism. I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our Christian brotherhood there may grow forth a strong Church of Christ among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart which could divide the brotherhood but will always try to promote the progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid down in these vows and our Constitution. Such men ought to make choice Christians. 8. Christianity's Constructive Values Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of men, sex appetite, will to achieve, and pugnacity. These must be overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated. Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity, however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where the religious life of the people has followed the same line that Christianity advocates. Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the part of the individual to enter heaven which is merely a replica of the earth. Christianity starts with a personal god and holds up before the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him. Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accompanied by the individual alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism and in China and Japan the Mahayana has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation. Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man and on the other hand correspond to the deep need which man of all ages have felt for a power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself. Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the divine power which started this universe on its way in which is the ever-present creative force. Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize himself. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of the community. Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists they can do so with the consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the light which signs brightly in our Christian religion. They have the assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfillment to the ideas of the Mahayana but also that it has prepared the way for the hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity. End of Chapter 10 The Christian Approach to Buddhists Recording by Scott Robbins End of Buddhism and Buddhists in China by Lewis Hodus