 CHOICE OF WORDS. TRUTH AND VIRACITY. The veracity of his statement is doubted, the sentence should be the truth of his statement is doubted, or in making that statement his veracity is doubted, veracity is applied to the person, truth to the thing. TRY THE EXPERIMENT. They are trying the experiment of running railroad trains by electricity. This should be they are making the experiment, etc. The word experiment contains the idea of trial, hence to try the experiment is to try the trial. LITTLE PIECE. I will go with you a little piece, a short distance or a part of the way would be more appropriate. Every confidence. I have every confidence in his ability to succeed. Confidence is a unit. Every implies several units considered separately. I have the greatest confidence in his ability to succeed is correct. UGLY. The word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, hence such expression says he has an ugly temper. This is an ugly customer. That was an ugly rumor, etc. Although common in colloquial discourse should be avoided in dignified address. UNVENOWN. This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use unknown. UNDERHANDED. Often incorrectly used for underhand as that was a contemptible and underhanded trick. COLIGRIPHY. This word means not writing, simply but beautiful writing, hence to say. His calligraphy is wretched is equivalent to saying his excellent writing is poor, which of course is a contradiction of terms. CAN BUT or CANNOT BUT. These expressions are sometimes confounded If I perish I can but perish means I can only perish or I can do no more than perish. I cannot but speak of the things I have heard means that I am under a moral necessity to speak of these things. The past tense forms COULD but and COULD NOT but should be in like manner discriminated. CASUALITY. The letter word casuality is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is legitimate, the second is without authority. The words specialty and speciality have a termination similar to the above. They may generally be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. COMPLECTED. The lady is light-complected, has blue eyes and auburn hair. COMPLECTED is a provincialism without sanction. The lady is of light-complexion, has blue eyes, etc. DISREMEMBER. This word is obsolete. Use FORGET or I DO NOT REMEMBER. LIE, LAY. The verbs lie and lay are often confounded even by intelligent persons. Lie does not take an object. We cannot lie a thing. It is, therefore, intransitive. LAY, which means to place in position, requires an object. We lay a book on a table or a brick on the wall. It is, therefore, transitive. The principal parts of the first verb are lie, lay, lay, and of the second, lay, lay, layed. The word lay is found in both, and this is in part accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors result from using LAID at the past tense form of the transitive verb. When the word lay, the past tense form of the intransitive verb should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending of the D or T sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of lie, the past tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the same reason, the participle form, LAID, is often incorrectly used for LANE. He told me to lie down, and I lay down, not laid down. I told him to lay the book down, and he laid it down. The ship lay at anchor. They lay by during the storm. The book is lying on the shelf. He lay on the ground and took cold. They lay in ambush. Lie low or he will discover you. The goods are still lying on his hands. Time lay heavily on their hands. We must lie over at the next station. A motion was made that the resolution lie on the table. Now I lie down to sleep. Now I lay me down to sleep. The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing verbs. As that. Did your cousin go to town yesterday? Not as I know. Better. Not that I know. Better still. I do not know. I do not know as I shall go. Use that for as. Toothache. As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the adjective BAD to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache, saying instead SEVERE. Beautifully and beautiful. After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is often incorrectly used for the adjective. The colonel looked handsomely in his military dress. I feel splendidly today. This peach tastes badly. The rose smells sweetly. Are all incorrect. Use handsom for handsomly. Very well or in good spirits for splendidly. Tastes bad or has a disagreeable taste for badly. And sweet for sweetly. Beg and Beg leave. I beg to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs. I beg to acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome present. In each case, say, I beg leave to. Do or Owing. The success was due to his honesty and energy. That is due, which should be paid as a debt. That is owing, which is referred to as a cause or source. The bill is now due and payable at the gas office. His success was owing to his honesty and energy. Each and every. I see him at his office each day of the week. In this sentence the word every would be better. Each refers to singular days particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days without exception. Both words refer to nouns in the singular, and such expressions as the following are incorrect. Every soldier and sailor stood at their post. The prisoners were discharged and went each their several ways. Correct by saying, the prisoners were discharged and went each his several way. Every soldier and sailor stood at his post. Each or both. Both parties maintained their original positions, as the parties are thought of separately the sentence should be. Each party maintained its original position. Both parties strove to place their best candidates upon the ticket is correct, because the parties are thought of collectively. Both or both of. Both is used alone before nouns and both of before pronouns. Both men have studied the currency question. Both of them are well informed in matters relating to the currency. Ever versus never. Let him be ever so rich, says Emerson. You spend ever so much money in entertaining your equals and betters, says Thackeray. Though he run ever so fast he cannot win the race. Writers and grammarians differ, some preferring ever, others never. Every once in a while this is a cumbersome awkward expression that should be avoided. Often and frequently, or at intervals, are among the expressions that may be used in its place. Exceptionable, exceptional. He enjoyed exceptional opportunities for acquiring the Greek language, say, exceptional opportunities. Female, woman. The word female is often employed when woman would be better. Female applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute creation. Poet or poetess. The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending ESS should be checked. Avoid poetess, authoress, doctoress, and other newly invented words of this kind. Fewer versus less. Fewer refers to number, less to quantity. He had less friends than I, and yet he was elected. Say, he had fewer friends. There were no less than fifty cows in the field. Use, fewer. Right Smart In some portions of the South the expression Right Smart is employed in colloquial discourse to convey the idea of a large quantity or in large measure, as we have right smarter peaches this summer, meaning we have a large crop of peaches. He knows right smarter Latin, or he knows considerable Latin, or he is well versed in Latin. Little bit. Would you have some of this pudding? If you please give me a little bit. Did you injure yourself when you fell? No, but I soiled my clothing a little bit. A small portion or piece in the first sentence and slightly in the second would serve as good equivalence for a little bit. Sight There was a sight of people of the fair today in the sense of a large number. This word like the word lot should be avoided. Crowd A dozen persons may constitute a crowd if they push and jostle one another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a crowd if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. Shockful This word is not authorised. Shockful and chockful may be used but are not elegant. Contemplate Propose Contemplate is often incorrectly used for propose as I contemplate going to the country. Dispense and dispense with These expressions are not synonymous. To dispense is to give. To dispense with is to do without. The pharmacist dispenses medicines. We should be pleased if a we could dispense with them. Dry or Thirsty Dry is often incorrectly used in the sense of thirsty as I am dry. Let me have a glass of water. To say I am dry, my waterproof an umbrella kept out the rain is correct. Dutch versus German. Do not call a German a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a German from Germany. Evacuate versus vacate Evacuate means to make empty and should not be used in the sense of to go away, to vacate. Different than different to The school is conducted in a very different manner than it used to be. This basket of roses is different to yours. The above and similar expressions are decided of algorithms and should be avoided. The school is conducted in a very different manner from what it used to be. This basket of roses is different from yours. Drive versus Ride Some confusion exists in the use of the words drive and ride. In England the distinction is made of applying ride to going on horseback and drive to going in a carriage with you ride or drive. That usage is not closely followed in this country. He who guides the horse drives, the rest of the company, ride. The noun and participial forms are more excusable than the verb. Jones asked me to drive with him this afternoon, but as Jones expects to do the driving himself, the speaker should have said, Jones asked me to take a ride or go driving or take a drive, etc. Couple versus Several The word couple is often incorrectly used in the sense of several as a couple of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of the word couple is not only limited to two, but to two that may be coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a couple. We speak of a span of horses, a yolk of oxen, a brace of ducks, a pair of gloves. Directly, immediately, as soon as. A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the United States. Directly, the whistle blew, the workman left the shop. Say, as soon as the whistle blew, etc. Immediately he closed his speech, his opponent rose to reply, say, when, or as soon as he closed his speech, etc. Directly, the notes without any delay. Immediately, implies, without any interposition of other occupation. Agreeably Disappointed When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations defeated, our intentions thwarted. We are disappointed. We prefer the agreeable to the disagreeable and plan and labor to secure it. When our plans fail, we are disappointed, but not agreeably disappointed. If the new conditions which are not of our seeking prove agreeable, it's only after the sense of disappointment has vanished. Allude to or refer to or mention The word allude is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of language it means to hint at by remote suggestion, to speak of figuratively or sportively. Whatever is directly mentioned or spoken of or described cannot be said to be alluded to. The terms differ in degree, the first being the weakest, and allusion is an indirect reference. Among the rest, Mary sat on the beach among the rest, say, with the rest. Haroose This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when read would be much better. Immigrants or immigrants These words are sometimes confounded. Did you see the immigrants on the Indiana which arrived this morning? Did the immigrants go directly to Italy? Exchange those words in the two sentences and they will be correctly used. Somewares The terminal S should be admitted in such words as anywares, somewares, nowares, anywares, hearabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts. In such cases as whereabouts did you find him, and we knew his whereabouts, the S is properly retained. Apart and aside May I see you apart from the others it should be. May I see you privately or aside. Fire versus throw We fire a gun but throw a stone. To fire a stone fire him out of the house. Fire him out of our employ may be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use them and good speakers should avoid them. The first versus single I have not found the first objection to his candidacy, say, instead a single objection or no objection. First two Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression that we have long used, that not a little time and effort have been expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It's an accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and writers now say the first two, the last five, etc., rather than the two first, the five last. Future versus subsequent The word future is sometimes used instead of subsequent as, until he was eighteen years old, his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, but his future life was characterized by kindness and generosity. Future looks forward from the present and not from some point of time in the past. Gents pants Gents pants scoured and pressed. Business signs and business advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say gents nor pants. Even pantaloons is not so good a word as trousers. Sit or set Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than the verbs sit and set. The important fact to remember in the use of the words is that sit in modern usage is an intransitive verb and does not take an object, while set, which means to place and position, is transitive and requires an object to complete its meaning. You cannot sit a thing but you do set or place a thing. The verb sit undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or time. I sit at the window to-day. I sat at the window yesterday. I have sat at the window daily for many years. Sitting at the window I saw the storm arise. Having sat at his table I can testify to his hospitality. The transitive verb set undergoes no tense changes. See me set this vase on the table. He set his seal to the paper yesterday. Jones will not set the world on fire with his writings. Having set my affairs in order I returned home. I sit down. I sat down. I set him down. There are many intransitive uses of the verb set as the sun sets, the tide sets toward the south, the fruit has set, he set out for Boston. There's a difference of opinion as to whether we should say the coat sets well or the coat sits well with the greater weight in favor of sits. The hen sits on her eggs she is a sitting hen. When the verb is used reflexively use set and not sat as I set me down beside her, not I sat me down beside her. Anyhow, this word can scarcely be regarded as elegant and should not be used except in colloquial style. Awful. Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word awful. From the loftiest and most all inspiring themes to the commonest trifle this much abused word has been employed. A correct speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest the idea of slang and thus detract from the subject to which the word might most fittingly be applied. Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such expression as isn't he awful nice or that hat of hers is awful pretty. To say awfully nice and awfully pretty would improve the grammar but the gross vulgarism remains. The word when properly used means inspiring with awe or dread often accompanied with reverence as when Milton says the trumpet spake not to the arm at throng but kings sat still with awful eye as if they surely knew their sovereign lord was by. Back up. In the sense of support this and the shorter expression back are doubtless borrowed from the commercial world while they may be tolerated in conversation they must be regarded as slang. Bulk. This word is often incorrectly used for most or the greater part as the bulk of the people oppose the measure. Bulk refers to size not to numbers burglarize. This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their reports of crime. It should be avoided but what or but that. I don't know but what I shall have to punish him. The sentence should read I don't know but that I shall have to punish him. It is equivalent to I think that I shall have to punish him. The omission of but will convey the opposite meaning I don't know that I shall have to punish him is equivalent to I think that I shall not have to punish him. Calculate. A provincialism often used in the sense of think, deem, suppose, believe as I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes. Calculated versus liable. This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of likely liable or apt as his utterances are calculated to injure his cause. In the proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. Leave versus quit. Leave is often incorrectly used for quit as that eminent actor expects soon to leave the stage. It would be a misfortune if he should take the stage with him. Say quit the stage. Henry has quit smoking here. Left off or stopped would be better. The president gave me leaf to speak with him. Say give me leave. Let it alone and let me be are preferable to leave it alone and leave me be. A1. I've just read an A1 article on the currency question in the last issue of the North American Review. This is an expression from the vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. Luck. Luck-like behavior may be either good or bad. The carpenter has met with luck he fell and broke his leg. The manager has met with luck his salary has been doubled. The adjective lucky and the adverb luckily are used only in a favorable sense. Make way with. This expression is often incorrectly used for make away with. As the judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner and the begrimed urchins quickly made way with the turkey and cranberry sauce, say instead made away with, etc., to make way is to make room to provide a way to dispatch. In our midst. The doctor settled in our midst, say among us or in our neighborhood. Indorse or Endorse. From the Latin dorsum the back. These words have come to mean the writing of one's name across the back of a check or draft or other commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its payment. To endorse a man's argument or opinions is an incorrect use of the word. While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, Indorse seems to be coming into more general favor. In or Into. In is often incorrectly used for Into as he hurried up the street and rushed in the store. We walk in a room when the walking is holy within the apartment. We walk into a room when we enter it from some other room or from the outside. Just Going To. I was just going to write you a letter, say I was just about to write you a letter. Kind Of. James swallowed the dose and now feels kind of sick. Use slightly or somewhat or some other modifier instead of kind of. Knowing. Do not use knowing for skillful or intelligent. He is a knowing artist. See him prick up his ears. He is a knowing cur. Clever or Smart. In England the word clever is applied to one who is bright, intelligent, ready, apt. In the United States it is often misapplied to one who is good-natured, kind or accommodating. Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school children? Yes, a spanking always makes them smart. To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the adjectives clever, bright, intelligent, apt are better than the word smart. Posted or Informed. He is well posted on all matters relating to cattle-breeding. Say instead, Informed. Perspire Versus Sweat. While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom and no person can feel offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. To sweat and to feed are expressions that apply to the matter, to perspire and to eat, to the former. Empty. The Mississippi River flows or discharges its water into the Gulf of Mexico, but it cannot empty so long as any water remains in the river. Enjoyed Poor Health. Gold that buys health can never be ill-spent nor hours laid out in harmless merriment. The negative form of expression, I have not enjoyed good health, is not only correct but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly stating a fact. To say I have enjoyed poor health for the past year is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It's like being agreeably disappointed. Aberration of Intellect. He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect. Simplicity would suggest he's slightly insane. Above. Forgoing. Let me call your attention to the above passage. The highest authority does not sanction the use of above as an adjective. See, instead say the foregoing passage. Allowed. Versus said. He allowed this was the best speech he had heard. This is a provincialism that should be avoided used said or declared or admitted according to the meaning. Alternation. This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It properly signifies a reciprocal succession as the alternation of summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene. Alternative. Etymologically and by general use this word refers to a choice between two. As if this demand is refused, the alternative is war. But Gladstone is quoted as saying, My decided preference is for the fourth and last of these alternatives. Anniversary. From annus a year means recurring every year. Centennial means once in a hundred years. What then does centennial anniversary mean? Use centenary. Learn versus teach. I taught him grammar, not I learned him grammar. He taught us history. Lease or let or rent or hire. We may lease to or from, I leased the farm to my neighbor, I leased this house from Brown. We let to another, as I let my house to my cousin. We may rent to or from another. We may hire from another, as I hired a servant, he hired a boat. Without and reflexively we may hire to another, as I hired out my horses. He hired himself to the miller. Like and as. Avoid the use of like in the sense of as. He thinks just as, not like, his father does. That Anthony Trollop, Hugh Conway and other writers are chargeable with this offense does not justify the use of like for as, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in order to avoid such errors. Let or lighted or alighted. He lighted the candle. The crow alighted on the top of the tree. Avoid the use of lit in such cases, and also that slang form as, I lit on a beautiful passage in Browning in the sense of met with. Lend and loan. Will you lend me your book is better than will you loan me your book. Near or nearly. Expressions is not near so good a scholar as his brother is instead used nearly. Nasty versus nice. Nasty is a strong adjective and should be used only in reference to what is offensively filthy foul or defiled. Such expressions as a nasty day and nasty rain mark a loose and careless use of the word. The word nice once meant foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate. It has now come to mean exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on account of skill or exactness. As nice proportions, nice workmanship, a nice distinction in philosophy, it is loosely and colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable, delightful, good. A bright young lady was once asked, Don't you think nice is a nasty word? She replied. And do you think nasty is a nice word? The subject was abruptly changed. Nicely. How do you feel this morning? Nicely, thank you. The foregoing use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use very well instead. No good? No use. How does that new machine work? It's no good. Shall I try again? No, it's no use. The answer should have been, it's of no good, it is of no use. O and O is in OH. While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors imply O, the letter O, only in cases of direct address and OH when strong and sudden emotion is to be expressed. O is always written with a capital letter and should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed. And the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the sentence as letter O, death, where is thy sting? Question mark O, grave, where is thy victory? O, the cold and cruel winter, OH in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter and is immediately followed by the exclamation point as OH exclamation point. How terrible was his fate! The sad intelligence was gently given, but OH the shock was almost unbearable. Observe and say. He observed that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds. To observe is to notice carefully to attend closely to what one sees. In the above sentence, said or remarked should be used instead of observed. Of any or of all. This is the largest tree of any I have seen. The meaning clearly is that of all the trees I have seen, this is the largest. Hence of any should be changed to of all. Older versus Elder Elder and eldest are terms applied chiefly to persons generally in speaking of members of the same family, while older and oldest are applied to persons of different families and also to things. Since elder brother died yesterday, his eldest sister has gone to Italy on her wedding trip. Our oldest neighbor was born in 1825. This oak is older than that pine. The foregoing sentence has illustrated the best usage as applied to the comparatives older and elder and to the superlatives oldest and eldest. When the direct comparison is made the word older is used followed by the conjunction than. Perhaps my father is older than my mother, but when the comparison is assumed the word elder should be implied as my father is the elder of my parents. Only. Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word only. The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the word which it modifies. He only lent me a dollar means that he did not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. He lent me only a dollar means that the sum lent was neither greater nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the latter should be. Only the man walked to the post office today. The woman did not walk with him. The man only walked to the post office today. He did not ride or drive. The man walked only to the post office today. He did not go so far as the store. The man walked to the post office once only today. Yesterday he rode and the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. George Elliott in Middlemarch says, I only know two gentlemen who sing at all well. And in another place I have only seen her once before. The word only should be placed before two in the first sentence and before once in the second. Onto. There is a growing tendency to write the words on and to as one word. Although nearly drowned, he yet had strength enough to climb onto the rock. The use of upon or on is generally better, but neither of these can be used write on and to as separate words. Outstart. This word is sometimes used when outset should be employed. Over and above. He earned twenty dollars over and above his expenses. Use more than or above. Party. Person. Is she the party of whom you spoke? No, she is the person. One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken of as a person, not as a party. Patron or customer. Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term customer and not patron. In like manner, use custom instead of patronage. Purr. Purr is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. We should say per annum, but not per year. Per diem and not per day. Per capita and not per head. He received a thousand dollars a year is shorter and better than he received a thousand dollars per year. Per chance, per adventure. These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary prose. Performers. The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and the performers acquitted themselves well. Singers, reciters, and singers are not performers. The term is applied to the stage and to those who play on musical instruments. Even in the latter application he plays well on the piano, is better than he performs well on the piano. Period or point. Do not use period for a point of time. Period implies extended time. Nothing like. James is nothing like so successful as his brother. Illustrates a colloquialism that should be avoided, use not nearly so, etc. Notorious or noted. He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite notorious. The word notorious implies some bad or doubtful quality or characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of noted or famous. Nowhere near so. He is trapped nowhere near so many rabbits as his cousin. This vulgarism should be avoided, use not nearly. Plead. The past tense of read is read, but the past tense of plead is pleaded and not plead. The prisoner pleaded for mercy. Plenty or plentiful. Money is plenty this summer. Plenty is a noun and should not be used as an adjective. Money is plentiful this summer. Shakespeare says if reasons were as plenty as blackberries, etc., but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare's time. This house is plenty large enough, neither is plenty an adverb, say. This house is quite large enough, or simply large enough. About or around. She was pleased with the conversation about her. Use around her. She was pained by the conversation about her. Use concerning her. Overlook and oversee. This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above as from the top of a Washington Monument you can readily overlook the city. But it's also meaning to look over and beyond an object in order to see a second object thus missing the view of the first object, hence to refrain from bestowing notice upon to neglect. The confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity as Brown's business was to overlook the workmen in the shop, his business was to oversee or superintend them, and not to neglect or overlook them. Revolting. To revolt is to rebel to renounce allegiance, but the participial form revolting also means repugnant loathsome. In the sentence, a band of revolting huns has just passed down the street. We should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word rebellious in the former sense and a disagreeable or disgusting or the stronger adjectives given above for the latter meaning would make the sentence clear. Unexampled. Such adjectives as unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented do not admit of comparison, hence such expressions as the most unexampled bravery, the most unparalleled heroism, etc., should be avoided. Utter. This verb should be distinguished from express or say. Utter carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense of uttering false coins or forged notes. As an adjective it is defined by complete, perfect, absolute, but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. I enjoyed utter happiness would be an absurd expression, but I was doomed to utter misery illustrates a proper use of the word. Valuable. Valued. These words are not synonymous. Valuable means precious, costly, having value. Valued refers to our estimation of the worth. He is one of our most valued contributors, not valuable, unless you were thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the compensation. Very pleased. A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by two or very, as I was very tired, or he was too fatigued to go farther. We should sometimes hear the expression, I was very pleased, but the critics insist upon, I was very much pleased or greatly pleased or very greatly pleased. Facinity. Often too high-sounding a word for the thought, neighborhood, is less pretentious. The old man. The use of such words as dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old woman, when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of refinement but shows positive disrespect. The words pap, papy, governor, etc. are also objectionable. After the first listings of childhood the words papa and mama, properly accented, should be insisted upon by parents, and at the age of twelve or fifteen the words father and mother should be substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the part of children. Great Big. He gave me a great big apple. This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use large. Argue versus auger. The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees argues an approaching storm. Use augers. Barbaric versus barbarous. Barbaric refers to a people barbarous to their low state of life and their habits of crowding. Cut in half. A colloquialism in very frequent use. I will cut this melon in half and share it with you, say. Cut in two or cut in halves or cut in two parts. Hearty meal. He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey. Hearty applies to the eater rather than to the meal. He ate heartily, etc. Some better. John has been right sick, but he's now some better. Somewhat rather or slightly may take the place of some. The sentence may be otherwise improved. John has been quite ill, but is now somewhat better. Through. Finished. Unless you have fallen through a trapdoor and finished your career, do not say, I am through, when you mean I have finished. The schoolboy says, I am through with that lesson. When he should say, I have finished that lesson. The farmer asks the man and his employee, are you through with that field? When he should have asked, have you finished plowing that field? You ask your friend. Are you through with Trillby when you should ask, have you finished reading Trillby? Winterish. Do not say summerish and winterish, but summery or summerlike and wintery. Wish. The word hope should be employed instead of wish, in such cases as, I wish you may succeed in your undertaking. Right. This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the following senses it should be avoided. Stand right here. In most instances the brieferexpression stand here is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more definitely, or to emphasize the position stand just here, or stand on this very spot may be better. The train came to a stand still right here. Better. The train stopped just here. Do it right away. This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Immediately instantly at once without delay are expressions that may safely be substituted for right away. I heard of your misfortune and came to you right away. John post this letter for me right off. Directly or immediately in the place of right away and right off is better English. James is right sick and the doctor comes to see him right often. The use of right as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very common in many quarters. Quite ill or very ill is better than right sick and often or frequently is better than right often. We have a right good crop a week this year. Use very instead of right. You have as good a right to be punished as I have. The person addressed would gladly relinquish his right. You merit punishment as well as I, or you deserve to be punished, etc. Shall, will, should, would. Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event shall is used with the first person and will with the second and third as I shall read, we shall read, you will read, he will read, they will read, but when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express promise, command, or threat, will is used in the first person and shall in the second and third as in I will read, we will read, you shall read, he shall read, they shall read. Shall primarily implies obligation. Will implies intention or purpose. Will and would should be used whenever the subject names the one whose will controls the action. Shall and should must be employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of another. The difference between should and would is in general about the same as that between shall and will. The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, but there are some special cases deserving attention. Will in the first person expresses ascent or promise as well as determination as, I will read this poem for you since you have requested it. I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed. Will in the second person may express a command as, you will take the places assigned you. You will report immediately at my office. Will is sometimes employed to express a general fact without conveying the idea of futurity as, accidents will happen, differences will arise. Will is sometimes incorrectly used instead of shall as, will I go for shall I go. This fault is common in Scotland and prevails to some extent in this country. Will is also used wherever may be more appropriate as, be that as it will. Shall you, will you? The distinction between shall and will in the interrogative forms of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same auxiliary as the question. Shall you go to town to-morrow? I shall. Will you attend to this matter promptly? I will. Should, would, or ought? Should is often used in the sense of ought, as Mary should remain at home today and wait upon her sick mother. Should and would are employed to express a conditional assertion as, I should go to college if I could secure the necessary means. He would have gone fishing if his father had been willing. Would is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish, as, he would sit all day and moan. Would to God we had died in the land of Egypt. He would go and his parents could not prevent him. Talented. Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected strongly to the use of talented. One writer argues that since there is no such verb as who talent, the formation of such a participle as talented cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good writer is known to use it. Webster, the International Dictionary, states that, as a formative, talented is just as analogical and legitimate as gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilyed, honeyed, and numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived directly from nouns and not from verbs. We must therefore conclude that the use of talented as an adjective is entirely legitimate. Climb Down The critics generally oppose the use of the expression climb down. When the verb is employed without its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In figurative language, as black vapors climb aloft and cloud the day, the general climb to the heights of fame, the upward direction is also understood, but in a specific sense climb is defined to mount laboriously, especially by the use of hands and feet. Here the manner seems to be as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in descending as a tree, a mast, or a steep rocky cliff, the general term descend fails to convey the meaning, and use slip, slide, drop, tumble, fall would be incorrect. We are then left to choose between the short and clear but objectionable expression climb down and some long and cumbersome equivalent. Mighty Never use mighty in the sense of very or exceedingly, it's not only inappropriate, but inelegant, of and from. She had consumption and died from the disease, say, died of the disease, on or over or upon. They called upon her friend, say, she called on her friend. The senator prevailed over his friends to support his bill, say, prevailed upon his friends. The candidate prevailed over his enemies. Partake This word means to take a part of, to share with another. It's often incorrectly used for eight, as he partook sparingly of the food. Powerful sight. This is a westernism to be avoided. It's used indiscriminately for a large number, a great quantity of vast amount, etc. Apprehend Comprehend To apprehend is to take into the mind, to comprehend is to understand fully what's already there. We may apprehend many truths, which we do not comprehend. Introduce Present Present implies more formality than introduce. We introduce one friend to another. An envoy is presented to the king. Foreign ministers are presented to the president of the United States. Same as This is the same story as I read last week. Use same that. Section We raise finer horses in our section. This is an Americanism that should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country, or state may be substituted for section. Seldom or Ever This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of seldom or never or seldom if ever. I have seldom if ever heard so eloquent an oration. I have seldom or never seen the man. Sewage versus Sewerage These words have distinct meanings. Sewage refers to the contents of the sewer, sewerage to the system of sewers. Sociable versus Social He is one of the most sociable men I have met. He is fond of society and is very ready in conversation. Sociable means companionable. Social applies to the relations of men in society. As social duties, social pleasures, social interests. Speciality speciality These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. Requirement, requisition, requisite While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar to itself. Requirement means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something necessary. Requisition, that which is required as of right, a demand or application made as by authority. Requisite, that which is required by the nature of things or by circumstances, that which cannot be dispensed with. She understood the nature of the child and of its requirements. The officer made a requisition for more troops. This is as much a requisite as food and clothing. Sick or ill, there is a growing tendency to discriminate between sickness and illness, limiting the words sick and sickness to some slight disturbance of the physical system as nausea, and implying the words ill and illness to protracted disease and disordered health. Scholar versus pupil Although these words are often used synonymously and with good authority, it would be better to limit the former to learn it persons and to apply the latter to persons under instruction. Commenced to write I commenced to write at a very early age. After the verb commenced, the best writers used the verbal noun instead of the infinitive with two as I commenced writing at a very early age. Beside and besides These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of today make a distinction. Beside means by the side of. Besides means in addition to. Besides is sometimes incorrectly used for accept as no trees will grow here besides the pine. Bountiful plentiful Bountiful applies to the giver, plentiful to the things furnished. The bountiful giver of all good furnishes a plentiful supply of all things needful for our comfort and happiness. Do not say a bountiful repast or a bountiful harvest. Attacked burst or drowned The incorrect past tense forms attacked, bursted, and drowned it, or sometimes heard, as the cashier was attacked by three of the ruffians. The cannon bursted and killed the gunners. The fisherman were drowned it off the bar. Instead use attacked, burst, or drowned it. All This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocers clerk has taken your order he has prompted to say, Is that all? Or if he should say, Is there anything else that you wish? You are likely to reply, No, that's all. Whether used in the question or in the reply the word all should be avoided, or else the expression should be expanded so as to make it clear a sentence. A friend calls to see you and finding you alone when he expected to meet others with you. He says, Good morning, I see you are all alone. All is not a good equivalent for quite or entirely, either of which words would be better than all. In truth the sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use of a modifier. I see you are alone. Inaugurate To inaugurate means to induct into office or to set in motion with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ the word in referring to common place events. A new business is established. A new hall or library is opened. A new pastor is installed. A new order of procedure is adopted. In general the word begin or commence would be more appropriate than inaugurate. Came across, met with. I came across the passage quite unexpectedly. Better, I chanced upon or happened upon or met with the passage quite unexpectedly. Expect Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than expect. I expect you went to town yesterday. I expect you will hear from me to-morrow. I expect the train has arrived. Represent some of the uses to which this word is often put. Expect refers wholly to the future and should not refer to present or past events as I expect you to write me from Liverpool. John expects to see his father to-morrow. Among the expressions that can most readily and appropriately be substituted for expect are suspect, suppose, think, believe, presume, daresay, overwith. After the supper was overwith the guests departed. Omit the with. Overflown The lowlands along the river are overflown. Use overflowed. The perfect participle of overflow is overflowed, not overflown. Good piece. I've come a good piece to see you, say I have come a long distance to see you. Stand a chance. He does not stand any chance of an election, say. It's not probable that he will be elected. No more than I could help. As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave no more than I could help. As accustomed are we to hearing this awkward blundering expression that we readily understand the meaning it's intended to convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help giving. I gave no more. Hence I gave no more than I could not help. This last form appears to be correct. By changing the phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. I gave no more than I felt compelled to give. I made my contribution as small as possible. My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of obligation. Above or more than or preceding. It's above a week since I heard from my brother, we may say above the earth, above the housetops, but in the preceding sentence it is better to say, it's more than a week since I heard from my brother. In the above paragraph he quotes from Horace, say, in the preceding or foregoing paragraph, etc., the awkwardness of the use of the word above becomes very apparent when the line in which it occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. Climax The Greek word climax means literally a ladder, and implies a scent, upward movement. The best authors use it only in this sense, and not to denote the highest point. Factor This word from the Latin factor or doer, an agent, signifies working, doing, effecting. Its frequent use in the sense of source or part should be avoided. All are but factors of one stupendous whole whose body nature is and God the soul. Hope employs the better word parts. Hung versus hanged Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are hung. Men are hanged. While some writers ignore this distinction the best authorities observe it. Health versus healthful A lady wrote to a paper asking, Are plants in a sleeping room unhealthy? The answer came, not necessarily. We have seen some very healthy plants growing in sleeping rooms. Persons are healthy or unhealthy. A plant or tree is healthy or unhealthy according as it possesses vigor. Food, surroundings, and conditions are healthful or unhealthful according as they promote or destroy health. Idea versus opinion Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire. What is your idea, say? What is your opinion? A child alone or only An only child is one that has neither brother nor sister. A child alone is one that is left to itself. Virtue alone makes us happy means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient to make us happy. Virtue only makes us happy means that nothing else can do it. Grow or raise or rear We grow wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm. We raise wheat, etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use sleep for lodge and eat for feed or supply with food as we can eat and sleep fifty persons at one time. The word raise is often incorrectly used in the sense of rear as she raised a family of nine children. It is sometimes employed in the sense of increase as the landlord raised my rent. Increased would be better. He has went. He goes to school. He went to school yesterday. He has gone to the West. Avoid such ungrammatical forms as he has went I have saw. Badly or greatly Badly is often incorrectly used for greatly or very much as I need it badly. He was badly hurt. That fence wants painting badly I think I'll do it myself. Said the economical husband. Said his wife you had better do it yourself if you think it wants to be done badly. At you. If you don't stop teasing me I will do something at you. Meaning I will punish you. That form of expression is very common in some localities and it's even more inelegant than common. The use of the preposition to instead of at would be a slight improvement but the sentence should be entirely recast. Happily versus happily. In the reading of the scriptures the word happily is sometimes used where the archaic word happily should be employed. In like manner the word thoroughly is substituted for the old form throwly. Both words should be pronounced as their spell. Thanks. To say I thank you requires but little more effort than to say thanks and it will be received as a more sincere token of thankfulness. Got to. This elegant expression is often employed where must would serve the purpose better. This work has got to be done say must be done, hangs on. The cold weather hangs on, better the cold weather continues. Under the weather. Are you well? No, I've been quite under the weather. Substitute sick or ill for the colloquial expression under the weather. Again versus against. Again is often erroneously used for against as he leaned against the tree for support, say he leaned against the tree for support. Could, can and will. Could is often incorrectly employed where can or will would be more appropriate. Could you lend me a dollar this morning? If the thought of the inquirer is are you willing to lend etc., he should have used will instead of could. But if his thought was are you able to lend or do you have a dollar to spare this morning, he should have used can. Bravery versus courage. Bravery is inborn. Courage is the result of reason and determination. The brave are often reckless. The courageous are always cautious. Hate. Avoid the use of hate for dislike and all other intensive words when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. Frity. Very. Frity is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or moderately as he was pretty badly hurt. He is a pretty good scholar. She's pretty wealthy. Thomas is pretty ugly. So common is this provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an expression as the last would pass undiscovered. Lot versus number. The use of lot for number or many is a colloquialism that should be avoided. He collected a lot, large number of books on the subject. A lot of policemen were gathered there. I ate lots of oranges while I was in Florida. Lead a dance. He led his companion a fine dance. This expression has generally used as ironical and implies that the leader conducts those who are led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals up may be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. Try and. Have you been to the country this summer? No, but I will try and go next week. The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent. But his going is still a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly interpreted means that he not only will try, but he positively will go. Try and finish that work today. Here the purpose is not to command that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As the sentence stands, two distinct commands are given first, that the trial shall be made, and second, that the work must be completed. The sentence should read, try to finish that work today. Use to instead of and in such expression says, try and make it convenient to come. Try and do your work properly. Try and think of your lessons. Try and go and see your sick neighbor. End of Slips of Speech, Chapter 2, Part 2, by John H. Bechtel. Read by Mike Harris. First Steps in Anglo-Saxon by Henry Sweet. Recorded for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, Volume 2. This is LibriVox Recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Verbs. 64. The infinitive of verbs ends in an, which, like other inflections, is shortened to, mm, after a vowel, as in, gone, to go, compared with, kuman, to come. Ichi saer tho shippu to lande kuman, frider wil thugan. 65. From the infinitive is formed the supine, to kumanne, to ganne. In which the infinitive is put into the dative after the preposition, tol. It is used to express necessity and purpose, and to define. Tho things the tol donne sind, ke kuman that land, tol shall we anne. Saer on tol oki anne. 66. The present participle ends in, nde, nde, as in, irnende, donne, doing. On horsum ridende. When present participles are made into nouns, they drop the final e, as in, sefeund, enemy, literally, hating. 67. The preterite participle generally takes the prefix, je, unless the verb already has some such prefix. It is formed in two ways. In strong verbs it ends in, in, nde. Thus the strong verbs, kuman, bekuman, come, gone, have preterite participles, kumin, bekumin, je gone. Where modern English go gone. In weak verbs it ends in, nde, or, nde. Thus the weak verb, yehiran, has preterite participle, yehirid. 68. The finite verb has three moods, indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, of which we are at present concerned only with the first, and two senses, present and preterite, together with two numbers, singular and plural, and three persons. 69. In the present indicative, the first person ends in, e. Ich kume. Ich yehere. Ich go. The second in, st. Thu yeherst. Thou hearest. And the third in, sth. He yeherth. He heareth. The plural ends in, ath. We yehereoth. Ye kumoth. He goeth. 70. The sth of the third singular is changed to, t, or lost after some consonants, as in, he forgeth. From forgethan, forget. After some consonants, it modifies the preceding consonant and is sometimes dropped itself, as in, he went from whendan, turn or go. He fate from fedan, bid. He set from setdan, set. The sth of the second person often causes similar changes in preceding consonants, as in, Thu feitst. Thou fetest. 71. Double consonants are always simplified before sth and th. Dje being made into ye, as in, He yefuth. From yefullan. Twill. Thu feist. From setdan. Sey. 72. In the preterite, the first and third person are always the same. It yeherde. He yeherde. And the plural ends in, on, in all three persons. We yeherdon. He yeherdon. Strong verbs. 73. Strong verbs, in addition to the above-described consonant changes, often modify their vowels before sth and th. As in, Huet itst thu. He itt. From etdan. It. He kuth. From kuman. He gath. From gon. 74. The preterite of strong verbs is formed not by adding anything, but by various vowel changes. Itch kume. I come. Itch kom. I came. Itch binde. I bind. Itch band. I bound. Itch quethy. Itch quath. Itch arise. I arise. Itch aras. I arose. Itch bebelde. I command. Itch beboud. 75. The preterite plural sometimes has the same vowel as the singular. He kom. He komen. He held. He heldom. From heldom. But generally the plural has a different vowel. He band. He bundom. He aras. He arisom. He beboud. He bebudom. Sometimes there is a consonant change as well. He queth. He quadom. He hraus. He rurom. From chriosan. Fall. 76. The second person singular of the preterite always has the same vowel in consonant as the preterite plural. From which it can be formed by changing on into e. He was. He was. He was. He quadom. Terror. You were eh thou word. So also. He sprach. You sprake. He sprachon. From sprecon. 77. The following are the inflections of the very frequent strong verb. Were than, become, including the subjunctive. Indicative. present singular first person each worthy second person two worst third person he worth plural he were that predatory singular first person each wealth second person two worthy third person he worth plural he were done subjunctive present singular first person that each worthy second person that through worthy third person that he worthy plural that he worthy predatory singular first person that each worthy second person that through worthy third person that he worthy plural that hey the predatory participle is you warden weak verbs 78 in weak verbs the second person singular of the predatory is formed by adding as in you hear this though 79 some weak verbs have infinitive on some eon the latter are inflected in two different ways present singular first person each fairie carry second person two ferrished third person if it is plural if they're the predatory singular first person each ferrity second person two ferrished third person he ferrity plural he ferridom participle present ferrindy preterate if it is infinitive ferrion gerund toll ferrion ne present singular first person each when you dwell second person through when asked third person he would have plural he wouldn't have preterate singular first person each one of the second person through one of the third person he wouldn't have plural he wouldn't have preterate singular first person each one of the second person through one of the third person he wouldn't have plural he wouldn't have participle present when in the preterate he wunald infinitive wunyan gerund toll wunyan ne 80 those with infinitive on are inflected thus present singular first person each you hear a second person through you hearst third person he you hearth plural he you hear a participle you hear in the preterate singular first person each you hear the second person do you hear this third person he you hear the plural he you hear them participle you hear it 81 some weak verbs omit the a in the preterate participle as in you lad from lad on lead bring or carry the d in itself being lost in such participles as a send from a send them send 82 after some consonants the day of the preterate is changed to tea generally with loss or change of the preceding consonant as in sit the from sit down set that the from touch on show the preterate participle has the same changes you sit yet are 83 some of these verbs have vowel change in the preterate and preterate participle as in say the from sit down sadly from sell on work the from work on work or make or do so he from see John seek so he from thin John think preterate participles you side you sound you worked you saw it you thought preterate present verbs 84 these have for their presence old strong preterates from which new weak preterates are formed generally with considerable irregularities thus what I know or he knows as plural way we don't like our us are reason preterate we stay plural we stone the infinitive being we done the second person singular present generally ends in or to last to const thou knowest from con knows plural he couldn't preterate he could be most of them have no infinitive and they are often otherwise defective subjunctive 85 the subjunctive mood makes no distinction of persons in the present singular it has the ending of the first person of the indicative which is of course dropped after a vowel that each come that I may come that through God indicative through ghast that here you hear a the plural ending in the present is in that way coming that way gone the subjunctive present of the verb be is say plural 86 the preterate subjunctive is formed from the preterate indicative in the same way that each you hear the that through you hear the indicative you hear this that he you hear the that way you hear the in strong verbs the preterate subjunctive has the form of the second person of the indicative that each where a that through where a that hey where a plural that way where an so also been done has subjunctive preterate boondi plural boonding in the preterate present verbs the subjunctive present has the form of a strong subjunctive preterate that each we take that way we then that he couldn't 87 the subjunctive states something not as a fact but merely as something thought of 88 in independent sentences it expresses what is wished or commanded you held it I see I'll make the other wise it is used chiefly independent sentences 89 thus it is used in indirect narration to show that the speaker is stating something merely as an idea suggested to him by someone else hey quad on thought hey where a gold Cunning if the truth of the statement is so self-evident that it could be expressed by direct narration without any change of meaning then the indicative may be used as in new way we love se John thought we foosey seen turn out poor say Johnny which means exactly the same as new way seen foosey so that the subjunctive would here be too emphatic that way foosey soon would imply that the speakers wish to say that their statement was false 90 so also in indirect question and similar constructions here are sure day what here where in here name each don are thinking who here here a feondum with stand on michten 91 in the following examples the subjunctive evidently expresses something as an idea not as an accomplished fact hey bad he ne sat here him tall foodoo me go me so men believe on serve afton sat here sat ship held him cunning he had a venous sat here sir kusti. He u de him that he mosten in kuman. Michel pleoch bith that man while ye fall. In swah welch swah thus se begor thine craft. The subjunctive gives the meaning of indefiniteness implying I do not know who ye are. 92. In some cases, the subjunctive implies that the statement is not merely hypothetical but unreal or impossible, as in hypothetical comparison. Thus, he ritsode swelche he kuning waere implies he nas na kuning. 93. So also in clauses of rejected condition where the unreality is further shown by putting the verb in the preterite, as in if thus swah un furcht waere swah thus self seest, which implies na ur thus swah un furcht swah thus self seest. 94. Hence the indicative is often used in clauses of open condition to show that the condition is not rejected, although we should otherwise expect the subjunctive. Ich thee sel le havok, ye thu mee sel stund. 95. There is a tendency to use the subjunctive in clauses dependent on a negative sentence. As in, neom ich swah speidi tha ich mei mei ween bujjan. 95. Because the statement, ich mei mei ween bujjan is false. 95. Without the negation, the indicative would be used. Ich eom swah speidi tha ich mei mei ween bujjan. So also after, then, as in, thus bricht de oblikur, thone ure ildow, aberon mei ye. Because the statement, ure ildow hit aberon mei is false. 96. The subjunctive sometimes used illogically in statements of facts. 97. It is so used after such conjunctions as er, before, othat, until. Beowulf sprach jilp wort er heon bedstige. Here, Beowulf's going to bed, though a fact, is expressed with subjunctive, because at the time indicated by the principal clause, it was not yet an accomplished fact. 98. Also with thayl, thayl see, although thayl see he undri lich sünchie, nicht nisth nan thing butan thare ildan shawdow. Here, the statement of the fact that it seems wonderful, is put in the subjunctive to show that what is referred to ought not to seem wonderful, because it is true. 99. The imperative singular of verbs with infinitive an can generally be formed by throwing off the infinitive ending as in held, sech, beyo, from held on, hold, sech an, seek, beom, be. In those with infinitive ian, it can be formed by throwing off the th of the third singular, as in ferre, carry, from ferian, ke fereth, ne sorgathu, do not grieve from sorgan, he sorgath. 100. But several verbs in an preceded by double consonants have imperative in e preceded by a single consonant, as in sele, from selan, seye, from sejan. So also, some otherwise strong verbs, such as sitan, sit, praderit, sat, imperative, site. 101. The imperative plural is the same as the indicative present. Haldoth, beyoth, feryoth, munyoth, selloth, anomalous verbs. 102. The following are the forms of the verb to be indicative, present singular first person. Aeom, beyoth, second person. Aert, beast, third person. Is, beeth, plural, sint, beyoth, praderit singular first person. Was, second person. Wadi, third person. Was, plural. Wadom, subjunctive, present singular first person. Se, beyoth, second person. Se, beyoth, third person. Se, beyoth, plural. Se, beyoth, praderit singular first person. Wadi, second person. Wadi, third person. Wadi, plural. Wadi, imperative. Wis, wisoth. Beyoth, beyoth. Infinitive, wezan. Beyon, 103. The following are the chief forms of don, do, and gone. Go, both of which have weak praderits. Indicative, present singular. Ich do, beyoth, plural, dooth. Praderit, doody, subjunctive, present singular. Do, plural, don. Praderit, doody, imperative, do, dooth. Participle, dondi, jedon. Indicative, present singular. Ich go, beyoth, plural, gooth. Praderit, aildy, subjunctive, present singular. Go, plural, gone. Praderit, aildy, imperative, go, gooth. Participle, gondy, jedon. 104. The weak verb haban, have, shows some irregularities. Indicative, present singular. Ich hab, bey. Do, havest, he, haveth. Plural, habboth. Praderit, havedy, subjunctive, present. Hab, bey. Praderit, havedy, imperative, hava, habboth. 105. The verb wilan, will, resembles the praderit present verbs and shows a mixture of subjunctive forms in the present indicative. Indicative, present singular. First person, ich wille. Second person, do wilt. Third person, he wille. Plural, wiloth. Praderit, woldy. Subjunctive, present singular. First person, wille. Second person, wille. Third person, wille. Plural, wilden. Praderit, woldy. Tenses and paraphrastic forms. 106. The future is often expressed by the present, as in, ich eowiezie. I will show you the way, sometimes by will and shall, as in modern English. Of the two verbs to be, beil is often used to express futurity, as in, ich beil soll meaudo, compared with, ich eow meaudo, or else continuity or repetition, as in, slab, beith, dael the ilegost. 107. The praderit has also the meaning of our perfect and pluperfect, which are, however, also expressed by paraphrastic forms, as in modern English. He habbath hine of slayin. They have killed him. He habbath hine of slayin. They had killed him. With intransitive verbs, these tenses are generally formed with, be, and the participle is then inflected, so as to agree with the subject. We sind kumine. He waaron kumine. 108. The passive is sometimes formed with, be, as in modern English, in which case, it generally implies a condition or state, rather than an action, as in, tha urch dan waaron jesamnode. When an action is implied, wer dan is used. seew woot na wirth, navera yehaled. mitjel dem werth ye-doon. man je min, woor dun of slayine, fram tham sa mannum. In the passive, the participle agrees in gender and number with the subject. negation 109. The negative particle is ne, which drops its vowel in many combinations, such as naan, nun, navera, neum, emnaat, naurth, artsnaat, nis, isnaat. Often with contractions and changes, as in, he nas, wasnaat, he naaron, werenaat. ich nule, I will not. he nolde, wouldnaat. he nuste, knewnaat, compared with, was, waaron, wile, wolde. wiste. 110. ne is prefixed to the finite verb in a sentence and to all the other words in the sentence which admit of the contracted forms. naan man, nuste naan thing. seew woot na werth, navera yehaled. If there are no such words in the sentence, the ne is often strengthened by some such negative word as na, not, nacht, nothing, not. That hoos ne fail na, end of Verbs from First Steps in Anglo-Saxon by Henry Sweet.