 The U.S. Naval War College is a Navy's home of thought. Established in 1884, NWC has become the center of Naval seapower, both strategically and intellectually. The following issues in national security lecture is specifically designed to offer scholarly lectures to all participants. We hope you enjoy this upcoming discussion and future lectures. Good afternoon and welcome to our 12th issues in national security lecture for academic year 22-23. I'm Commander Gary Ross and I'll serve as your host for today's event. For anyone just joining us, this series was originally conceived as a way to share a portion of the Naval War College's academic experience with the spouses and significant others of our student body. Over the past five years it has been restructured to include participation by the entire Naval War College extended family, to include members of the Naval War College Foundation, international sponsors, civilian employees, and colleagues throughout Naval Station Newport. We will be offering two additional lectures between now and May, spaced about two weeks apart on a wide variety of national security topics and issues. On announcement detailing the dates, topics, and speakers of each lecture will be sent by me or the Public Affairs Office, both on email and posted on our public website. Our next lecture will be held three weeks from now, Tuesday, April 25th. We will feature an engaging discussion from Naval War College Professor Dave Conan on the history of Narragansett Bay. For each lecture, speakers will provide remarks for about 45 minutes and then for the remaining 15 minutes or so we'll answer questions from you. Okay on with the main event, please feel free to ask questions using the chat feature on Zoom or the microphone. If you are here in the auditorium and we will address them at the conclusion of the presentation. With that, I am very pleased to introduce our speaker, Professor John Mauer, who will speak today about the topic President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Road to Pearl Harbor, where he will examine the grand strategy of President Roosevelt as he prepared America for the coming trial of strength. In confronting the threat from Japanese aggression in Asia, FDR also contended with the danger posed by Nazi Germany in Europe. Professor Mauer will follow the steps taken by the United States that led to war on the fateful day more than 80 years ago. Professor Mauer serves as the Alfred Thayer Mahan distinguished professor of sea power and grand strategy in the strategy and policy department. He is a graduate of Yale College and holds a PhD in international relations from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. At NWC, he served for eight years as a chairman of the strategy and policy department. He teaches in the advanced strategy program and an elective course on Winston Churchill and the history of the two world wars. He served on the secretary of the Navy, John Layman's special advisory committee on naval history. His most recent book is an edited volume of essays published by the Naval Institute Press, The Road to Pearl Harbor, Great Power War in Asia and the Pacific. In recognition of his contributions to professor professional military education, he has received the U.S. Navy's Meritorious Civilian Service Award and Superior Civilian Service Award. I am pleased to pass the microphone over to Professor Mauer. Welcome. Thank you, Gary, for that introduction. Today I am going to talk about President Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States from March 1933 down to April 1945. This was a turning point in American history where the United States emerged on the world scene. Roosevelt had to deal with war and also helped the United States set policies to get the United States out of the Great Depression. Again, it is a turning point in 20th century history and what happened back then 80 some years ago still influences the United States today. Roosevelt's legacy is one that lasts down to our own time. Well, here's a photograph, a portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt, FDR, in 1932 after he was elected President of the United States. This is the image that I think most of us have of Roosevelt as President of the United States. What makes for a leader, though? What experiences in their life leads them to be known as a great figure in history? Well, for that we have to look at what did people read? What influenced them? Well, as a young boy, a teenager, Roosevelt was given Alfred Thayer Mahan's great book, The Influence of Seapower Upon History. Those of you who are students at the War College, you have read The Influence of Seapower Upon History. You know that is not an easy read. Am I right, Leo? Is it an easier? No, it's a hard read. It's a reading of history and also development of theory, strategic theory. Roosevelt, as a boy, read it. He devoured it. He thought it was a great book. He followed the works of Mahan through the rest of his life. Again, if you're looking for young people and your life teenagers, looking for a birthday present for them, buy them The Influence of Seapower Upon History and maybe someday they'll grow up to be President of the United States. Well, here's a photograph of Mahan. Of course, the second President of this Naval War College. And while President, he published his book, The Influence of Seapower Upon History, it was the lectures that he gave here in the old schoolhouse, now the Naval War College Museum. Right, Brandy? The old school museum. And if you haven't visited the museum, you should visit the museum. Well, what else influenced Roosevelt as a leader, especially as a strategic leader? Somebody versed in international relations and also in the study of war. Well, it's important to note that Roosevelt, as a young man, was made in the Wilson administration the Assistant Secretary of the Navy. And here's a photograph of him from 1913. He's 31 years old. At the age of 31, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the number two civilian position in the Navy Department. And this is at a major time in American history. The period of the First World War, Roosevelt presided over the buildup of American naval power during the First World War. Well, his relative, another Roosevelt family, was none other than Theodore Roosevelt, who had also served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy before being President of the United States. Well, when Franklin became Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore wrote to him and said, enjoy yourself. Enjoy yourself as being Assistant Secretary of the Navy. And Roosevelt said he was sure that Franklin would do capital work. We don't use that word capital anymore as an adjective. That's a shame, I think. It's a great adjective to use. Well, as you can see, there's Theodore Roosevelt. Franklin modeled himself on Theodore. Clearly, too, Franklin had ambitions that someday, like Theodore, his relative, that he, too, might become President of the United States. You can see here, Franklin, again, the Ponce Day glasses that Theodore has, the part in his hair. The one thing that Franklin didn't adopt from Theodore, of course, is the mustache. But otherwise, Franklin had a model, a model in Theodore. So what goes into leadership? One, reading, study. Two, having models to emulate people to look up to. But third, of course, having executive experience. And this Franklin D. Roosevelt had as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, an important leadership position for national security in the United States. Now, as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he wanted to influence the American public. At this time, one of the burning security issues in the United States was where to concentrate the battle fleet. Should it be in the Atlantic? Should it be in the Pacific? Should it be divided between the two oceans? Franklin was very clear in his mind that the U.S. battle fleet should be kept concentrated, concentrated at force. And in this, where did he get this idea of concentration of force from Mahan's writings? And so as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he turned to Mahan and asked Mahan to write an article about this topic, this strategic topic of where to deploy the fleet. And here you see this letter in Franklin D. Roosevelt's hand writing to dear, my dear Admiral Mahan. This letter is in the archives of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library in Hyde Park, New York. And again, there's a photograph of Franklin as Assistant Secretary of the Navy at his desk. To Mahan, can you read that? Hand writing, hard to read. Well, it says your voice, meaning Mahan's voice, will carry more conviction than that of anybody else. Again, as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he knows it's important to reach the American public. And he's reaching to Mahan, who is a celebrity writer, to influence public opinion on this matter. Because in the United States, there were views on the East Coast, West Coast, that the fleet should be there. Out on the West Coast, it should be in the Pacific. On the East Coast, no, it should be in the Atlantic. So again, Roosevelt's trying to reach the American public by having a celebrity author like Mahan write about this subject to educate the American public. Again, Mahan was an educator here, a professor of strategy at the Naval War College. But he is also an educator in the sense of reaching a wider community of the American public. And Roosevelt understands, understands well as a political figure that in his democracy, you have to have the public behind you. Well, Mahan wrote one of his last articles published in the North American Review. And the topic is, what, where should the fleet be distributed before the Panama Canal was completed? And again, the opening sentence highlights the importance of the topic. The question of the proper distribution of the Navy is not only of great importance, but often of much perplexity, confusion to a country having large external interests, especially if these not only be extensive, but divergent. Again, this is something down to our own time. Where should American forces be committed? What theater is the most important? Is it the Middle East? Is it Europe? Is it Asia? How about the Western Hemisphere? Again, for the United States, concentration of force. Where do you put your military assets? Where is most important to you to defend? Well, again, Mahan was writing about this for the American public at the behest of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Well, here you see Roosevelt again enjoying himself as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Here he is at the Kiel Lang in 1914 of the battleship Arizona in the Brooklyn Navy Yard in New York. A year later, the Arizona would be launched 1915 and in 1916, it would be commissioned and steamed down the East River from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Again, Roosevelt is associated with the Kiel Lang of the battleship Arizona, the battleship that was destroyed at Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941. Again, Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy presided over the buildup of American naval power during the First World War. This experience in office of dealing with national security affairs, this is part of Roosevelt's education that would stand him in good stead as President of the United States. Well, in the interwar period between the two World Wars, one of the big questions was whether the United States was going to fight Japan. Both the United States and Imperial Japan are these two rising powers on the world stage. Would these two rising powers collide? Would their interests be so divergent that it would lead to war? To use the language we do use today, were these two countries destined for war? These two great powers of the Pacific? Well, in the 1920s, an era in which Japan looked like a responsible stakeholder, again to use the language of our own time, Roosevelt didn't think that war was inevitable with Japan. In the 1920s, Roosevelt was afflicted by polio. He would go for relief from the disease to Warm Springs, Georgia, where he would swim. He was an avid swimmer. He believed the waters helped him with his malady. Well, while recovering from polio, dealing with his illness, Roosevelt wrote an article in the journal Asia. And as you can see from the title, it goes, shall we trust Japan? This is 1923. Was war inevitable between these two countries? Well, the thesis of the article is no, it's not. And again, Roosevelt highlights that he believes, again this is the 1920s, believes that those principal causes that would lead to conflict between the United States and Japan are being removed and eventually will be eliminated. Again, Roosevelt does not see conflict inevitable with Japan. A few years later in 1928, Franklin D. Roosevelt ran for governor of New York to restart his political career despite the ravages of polio. He was asked and he wrote an article for the journal Foreign Affairs, then as now the most important journal of international relations in which American elites put forward their views about international relations and foreign policy and national security. In this article, Roosevelt wrote about what were the views of the Democrats? How would they be different if they won the White House in 1928? How would a foreign policy of a Democratic administration be different from that of the Republicans? And in this article, Roosevelt is carrying the standard. He's the one reaching out to the American public to a lead opinion, to tell them how American foreign policy would be conducted if the Democrats won the White House. Well, in this article, again, he goes to emphasize that he doesn't see war with Japan as inevitable. Quite the reverse. He says, only excited admirals seriously consider the possibility of what? The United States or Japan attacking each other. Again, keep in mind Roosevelt as president would preside over the buildup of American naval power, preparation and leading to the execution of the war against Japan and an invasion of Japan to end that war. Again, in 1928, Roosevelt doesn't see war as inevitable. Now, we might all say, well, this just shows he's short-sighted. His crystal ball was cloudy. He should have been able to see somehow these events that were going to happen. But again, keep in mind in the 1920s, the world economy is growing. Japan and the U.S. have negotiated treaties with each other. It doesn't seem that war is inevitable. Well, what changed things? Well, here's the front page, the New York Times, the day after the stock market crash in October 1929. What changes things around from the international environment of the 1920s in which people are hopeful that great power competition is going away. The world is being globalized and knit together. So it's not in the interest of peoples to fight each other. Instead, it's in the interest of people to trade with each other, to finance each other, to move peoples around the world. Now, again, the economic crash of 1929 leads to the severe economic downturn known as the Great Depression. If you go to Washington, D.C., there's the Franklin D. Roosevelt Memorial in Washington. And if you haven't seen it, go to it. It's a remarkable memorial to Franklin D. Roosevelt. And here you see statues of men who are unemployed out of work. Not only have they taken a financial hit, poor, but they've lost self-respect. They've lost their jobs. This is a very unhappy time in America. And this group of statues here of these men who are down on their luck, who want work, who want food, you can see this in newsreels of the time. And indeed, these statues are inspired by the newsreels of the time of street scenes in New York. Well, Roosevelt is elected president in November 1932 and takes office in March of 1933. And one of the things he wants to do is bring back confidence to the American people that this economic catastrophe can be turned around and that prosperity can return again to America. And here you see an iconic photograph of Roosevelt sitting in one of his cars, by the way, even though his legs were paralyzed by polio. He had cars designed for him that he could drive them but using his hands. By the way, he was something of a reckless driver, we're told, and people didn't like to be in the car with him. You can see two of these cars, by the way, at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Museum down in Warm Springs, Georgia. If you're ever down that way, go to that museum. Well, you can see Roosevelt here. Again, the Paw Snake glasses, the cigarette holder, the big grin, toothy grin and smile. Again, the people can come out of the Great Depression. Again, that prosperity can return to the United States. Again, optimism is as important. That psychological optimism is as important as government policies for putting America back on track. Well, one of the things he did to relieve unemployment in the United States was take funding from the National Industrial Recovery Act and put it toward the U.S. Navy to build up American naval power, which he saw as having declined during the previous decade. This was very controversial at the time, by the way, and Roosevelt took a big hit in the American public who said, you shouldn't be spending money, funding that goes to National Recovery on warships, because warships, of course, lead to war. Again, that money could be better spent. Again, Roosevelt, though, wanted to aid in industrial recovery and also strengthen the Navy at the same time. And here you see a photograph of Roosevelt in May of 1934 in New York Harbor taking the review of the U.S. Navy, of the fleet. You see Roosevelt there next to him is wife Eleanor, next to him on the other side is Sarah Roosevelt, Roosevelt's mother, who was a big influence in Franklin's life, and behind him is son James and James's wife. They are on the cruiser Indianapolis, taking the review. Those of you who are naval historians that know the history of the Second World War know that the cruiser Annapolis, of course, was torpedoed and sunk in 1945 after it carried nuclear weapons across the Pacific. And the story of the crew of the Indianapolis is a horrific one. And here you see the fleet parading past the president aboard the Indianapolis firing salutes. Again, Roosevelt considers himself a Navy man from his time of being assistant secretary of the Navy and sees the Navy as being important for the security of the United States. Again, you can just see how in Roosevelt's mind the influence of Mahan is there. Well, the United States comes out of the Great Depression under Roosevelt's presidency during the 1930s. An economic recovery takes place. In other countries, the Great Depression, though, led to a radicalization of politics in those countries, where extremists take over. The result is that the Great Depression is what leads to a great war. The international economic downturn. The United States was not the only country afflicted by the Great Depression. It was global. It affected Britain. It affected France. It affected Germany. It affected Japan. All of those countries suffered from the Great Depression. All had to deal with it. One of the results, though, of the Great Depression was the radicalization of politics in Germany. In 1932, elections were being held in the midst of the Depression. And in 1933, 90 years ago, January 30th, 1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. The Nazi Party is the dominant party within Germany. This comes about because of the Great Depression. The Nazi Party and Hitler were a fringe group in German politics during the late 1920s, during the time of economic recovery from the First World War. Because of the Great Depression, however, and high unemployment in Germany, the result was a radicalization of German politics and Hitler coming to power. Look at this creepy photograph. Don't you find this creepy? Look at his eyes. And look, what has he done? He has his hands around this boy. How old is that boy? 12? 12 years old perhaps? Again, this is a Grimm's fairy tale. The Pied Piper has seized hold of your children. And again, the Nazi movement was popular among the youth of Germany. A generation that was blighted by the Great War, having lost a father and uncle, older brother in the fighting of the First World War, looking, looking for a leadership model role. And there is a decorated combat veteran of the First World War, Iron Cross First Class Adolf Hitler to be that role model. What's going to happen to that boy? Well, we can guess what happens to him. He's going to die on a submarine in the Atlantic. He's going to be shot down in an aircraft over Britain. Or he's going to die on the Eastern Front at Stalingrad, fighting against the Soviet Union. Again, this generation to which the Nazi leadership is appealing. Well, this generation is going to suffer greatly in the Second World War. Again, I find this photograph so creepy and looking at it, especially his eyes looking out. It's almost as if he's telling you, I've succeeded. I've won. I've got control here of the next generation. Well, it wasn't just Nazi Germany where the politics becomes radicalized. It's also the case in Japan. And here you see the Emperor here, a Hito, riding a white horse. Whenever you see an emperor on a white horse, run the other way. Again, this is Napoleonic. Napoleon is white horse. In fact, if you go to the French Military Museum in Paris, you can see one of Napoleon's horses. It's stuffed there. Last time I was there, the horse needed a refurbishment. But emperors on their white horses. Yes, this is a sign of a militarized society. The emperor here, a Hito here, this photograph in military uniform with decorations, again, shows a turn in Japan away from globalization, away from cooperating with the United States, to a country then instead that has great ambitions on the international scene, that wants to assert its power in Asia, even if it means coming to war. Now, where were the breaks on the militarization of Japanese domestic politics and then foreign policy? Well, one of the sad stories of the 1930s is that Japanese political figures who wanted to cooperate with the U.S., they would be assassinated, including two prime ministers, two of Japan's most prominent leaders, who were very much eager to cooperate with Britain, with the United States to avoid conflict, to solve the problems of Asia without war, they're assassinated. This book by the New York Times corresponded, who was in Tokyo during the 1930s, government by assassination, that title has taken hold. That part of the radicalization of Japanese politics is that those who stand against the militarization of Japan, they're taken from the scene, quite literally removed, killed. Again, a government where opposition is done in. I like very much, by the way, that the journalist here, his name is U. Bias, never that there would be a bias in journalism, of course. This book is still worth reading, by the way, and as you can see, it came out soon after the U.S. entry into the war, and it tells that sorry tale of what happened in Japan during the 1930s. Well, war in Asia comes to Japan, comes to Asia, as Japan starts to assert itself, the Japanese Empire already controlled Korea, already controlled Taiwan, but they wanted to have Manchuria, Manchuria, a big area, northeast China that is rich in raw materials, potentially also farmland. The Japanese want this area to strengthen their power in the world. Iron, coal, this will make Japan a stronger industrial power, hence a stronger military power to be able to confront other countries that want to stand in the way of its ambitions. In 1931, the Japanese take over Manchuria. This is seen as part of China, to Chinese nationalists. This is an affront to the Chinese people. By the way, the United States looks at this and says, we won't recognize it. After our Secretary of State at the time, Henry Stimson, it's the so-called Stimson Doctrine. The United States can't turn this back, can't stop Japan from controlling Manchuria, but we refuse to recognize it. We see it as an illegal seizure of territory. Again, the Stimson Doctrine is invoked today more recently when Putin sees the Crimea from Ukraine, that we don't recognize that seizure of that territory from Ukraine by Russia. Well, the conflict between China and Japan escalates, and in 1937, the so-called China incident, that's how the Japanese portray it, occurs. Warfare, a large war breaks out in Asia between nationalist China, whose leader is Shunkai Shek and Japan. The Japanese had hoped that they would be able to defeat quickly Shunkai Shek and the Nationalists. In this, they were mistaken. Again, like Putin today, attacking Ukraine, expecting a quick victory, it didn't happen. Instead, Japan is caught in a protracted war of attrition against China, against the nationalist China. By the way, Japan wins almost all the battles. They seize the Chinese nationalist capital of Nanjing. They engage in terror campaigns to terrorize the Chinese people, and yet, and yet, they can't break the will of the Chinese nationalist government and people to give up the fight. So Japan is caught in this quagmire. Here you see film footage, conic photograph of a crying baby in a bombed-out Shanghai railway station. American public is seeing these images when they go to the movie theaters. Of course, television doesn't exist. No internet, but you go to the movies and you get newsreels, and this is what the American people are seeing. They're seeing atrocities committed by Japan, a country that seems to have run amok in a major war in Asia. Millions of Chinese die in this war from 1937 down to 1945. Well, in October of 1937, after the Japanese-China war starts, President Roosevelt, in a speech in Chicago known as the quarantine speech, talks about what he sees as international lawlessness, that what Japan is doing is like an epidemic. An epidemic is the metaphor that Roosevelt is using here of lawlessness that is spreading around the world. And when that happens, you should have a quarantine. Now, what exactly he meant by that is a matter of a lot of discussion and debate. The U.S. was not going to take hard military moves against China, but at the same time, to try to isolate somehow Japan from this aggressive action. And again, a quarantine has to take place in the international system just as a community tries to have a quarantine against the spread of disease. War is a contagion, Roosevelt says, and it will spread. What happens in Asia won't stay in Asia. It will spread around the world. That's the danger that Roosevelt sees. And again, he's talking to the American public because the American public thinks we have these two big oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific. What happens in the old world won't affect the new world. We can stay isolated away from what goes on over there. Roosevelt is saying, no, that won't happen. It can engulf states and people, meaning the United States, far away from where the warfare is taking place. And he tells the American people, understand that this war could spread and that the U.S. in the Western Hemisphere, isolated in the Western Hemisphere, won't be immune from wars contagion. And again, don't think that the U.S. can go on leading its own life, tranquility, peace and prosperity in the new world if the old world is engulfed by war. Again, this is an important speech that is given by Roosevelt. The time, it's very controversial. Many American people want to believe that they don't have to be involved in the wider world outside of the Western Hemisphere. Indeed, those wars outside of the Western Hemisphere, by getting engaged in them, the United States is seeking trouble. Better to mind your own backyard. Well, Hitler's war, war in Asia is beginning in 37. In 1939, war begins in Europe. Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia joined together to attack Poland. And this becomes the trigger for the war in Europe that begins in September 1939. So you have war in Asia, now war in Europe setting off. In the spring of 1940, in April, May, June, Hitler turns his legions to the West, attacking Denmark, Norway, attacking Belgium, Netherlands, France. And a surprise victory takes place on all these fronts. The Germans are victorious quickly. And in June, the Germans occupy Paris. This is a shock. Remember, to this generation, they had seen the First World War. For four years, the Germans hammered at the French and the French army, and they couldn't take Paris in the Great War. Now, after just a few weeks, France is being defeated. Paris is declared an open city. The French won't fight in Paris. They retreat. The French are defeated so quickly. This is a stunning upset. No one had expected this to happen. Hitler said, oh, by the way, if Germany wins big in Europe, that doesn't mean that the U.S. will be threatened in the Western Hemisphere. Again, trying to play upon an opinion in the U.S. that says stay confined to the hemisphere. Roosevelt, again, to the New York Times, to media, is saying he's skeptical of any pledge by Hitler. Again, U.S. security is going to require the U.S. to play a larger role in the world. And again, newsreels at the time are showing the German army entering Paris, going down the Champs-Élysées of Hitler taking a tour of Paris, visiting Napoleon's tomb, the Eiffel Tower. Again, what an upset this is. No one expected this to happen. That France would be defeated so quickly. Britain remains defiant, though, of Hitler. And under their new Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, Churchill says Britain will never surrender. Again, he rallies the British people despite a major defeat of their ally. The losses suffered by the British on the continent, its army escaping through Dunkirk, getting away just in the nick and time. Churchill, again, is rallying the British people. But he rallies the British people. His hope, his hope, is that the United States will eventually see that its security is tied up with Britain staying in the war. Churchill is a firm believer that the United States eventually will see the danger from Hitler and from Japan, and will work to support those that are fighting these two aggressor states. It should be remembered, by the way, that Winston Churchill's mother was an American, Jenny Jerome, from Brooklyn, New York. Again, Churchill believed in America. At the time, though, many in Britain questioned American resolve to engage in these wars in Europe and Asia. As a consequence, Churchill is placing a bet on America coming to Britain's aid in the fight against Nazi Germany. If Churchill didn't have that faith, and again, faith not only America, but also in Franklin D. Roosevelt as America's leader, Britain's leaders might well have sought to negotiate with Hitler to end the war, a war that they believed would be hopeless if the U.S. didn't enter the conflict. Here's an important lesson here, that partners around the world will stand up to aggression if the U.S. is there behind them, helping them. If not, well, then maybe you cut the best deal you can with the aggressor. Well, Churchill convinces the British people to stay in the war. The British government, Hitler unleashes the Luftwaffe, the German air force against Britain to try to win the Battle of Britain. Here you see a German bomber bombing the British homeland. Here you see the east end of London, the city of London, around St. Paul's Cathedral being bombed. St. Paul's Cathedral at one point was in danger that the great dome to Christopher Wren's Great Dome, this architectural masterpiece, might have collapsed as a high priority of the British government to save St. Paul's Cathedral. Considerable damage done to London and other urban areas in Britain at this time. In fact, Buckingham Palace was bombed by German bombers. And here you see the royal family, the king and the queen with Winston Churchill surveying the damage at Buckingham Palace. By the way, the queen and the king, the royal family, they were so glad they were bombed. They didn't want the British people to think that somehow the royal family was immune from the German attacks. Again, that the royal family could look at the people, the poorer areas of London, look at them in the eye, the queen said, and say, we also have taken hits as well. In the spring of 1941, the Houses of Parliament were bombed. House of Commons destroyed. The House of Commons that you see today has been rebuilt. When I see this photograph, what always comes to mind is September 11th, 2001, that aircraft that crashed in Pennsylvania because those on that flight decided to fight back and instead brought that plane down at the cost of their own lives to that field in Pennsylvania. Where was that plane going? Was it going to the Capitol? Was it going to the White House? Oh, I don't know. But the damage on September 11th in Washington could have been much greater and this is what I think of when I see what happened to the House of Commons in 1941. Well, the defeat of France so quickly galvanizes the American public. The American public realizes across the political spectrum, the world has gotten a heck of a lot more dangerous and that the US has to rearm quickly. And hence, the United States goes in for a huge naval buildup and also conscription. National service is planned. Again, the United States is not in war, but the fall of France has changed around American perception of the world. Even if the United States hunkers down to hemispheric defense, the US has to be better armed than what it had been. There's a consensus across the board to build up American military power. Another thing happens. In 1940, before the fall of France, Roosevelt considered running for an unprecedented third term as President of the United States. And they did opinion polls and they asked the American public, what do you think about Roosevelt running for a third term? And the opinion polls tended to be negative, which is that Roosevelt was great, got us out of the Depression, great leader, but no one, no one should violate the tradition handed down by our founding father, George Washington, that you serve two terms as President and then step down. At that point, there was nothing in the Constitution against someone running for a third term. Other presidents had thought about it. Ulysses S. Grant, Woodrow Wilson. But it was considered a tradition that shouldn't be violated, because after all, if someone runs for a third term, it says, I'm better than George Washington. The American people, that didn't sit well with them. But the fall of France, the much more dangerous international environment, the American people looked across the leaders of across the political spectrum and said, Roosevelt, he's the one that is best suited to lead the country at this hour of great danger. And so opinion polls change. Roosevelt can think about running for a third term and understands that he's likely going to win. Again, think about this. The larger international environment has an impact on American domestic politics. This should be taken on board, which is the more dangerous the international environment was at this time. It led to a change of views about something as fundamental as term limits for president that Roosevelt now can run for a third term with the prospect of success. And he and his party are very savvy about this. How do you portray this to the American people? Well, if you're going to have conscription in which young people are going to be drafted, the president can be drafted. And you can see in the campaign poster you have Uncle Sam pointing out, we want Franklin D. Roosevelt to stay and finish the job. He is being drafted to be commander in chief by Uncle Sam. Well, this is very savvy. His opponent is Wendell Wilkie, who had been a Democrat, turned Republican, very successful lawyer, business person. Roosevelt beats him though. It's a landslide victory in 1940. Here's the Electoral College map at the time. As you can see, strong support for Roosevelt across the country. Well, Roosevelt is a global strategist. This is one of two, two globes built by the War Department. One for Roosevelt, one for Churchill. And again, one thing you have about Franklin D. Roosevelt is he has a global sensibility. He understands how what happens in Asia, what happens in Europe, that they're interconnected. These are not two separate regions. The two regions, what happens in one has an impact on the other. Again, for Roosevelt at this time, the United States must help those fighting aggression. Again, he calls for the United States to be the great arsenal of democracy, to support those fighting against aggression. Again, today we think about armaments going to Ukraine to help them fight against Putin's aggression. Well, Hitler dominates the continent. On June 22nd, 1941, he attacks the Soviet Union, his partner that had carved up Eastern Europe in 1939 and 40. Now, Hitler turns on Stalin. Roosevelt wants to help Stalin's Russia as much as he wants to help Churchill's Britain because what links them all together? Again, a war against Nazi Germany. In August of 1941, Roosevelt and Winston Churchill meet at a summit. This is the first major summit of allied leaders. And it's triggered in part by Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. What can Britain and the United States do to help the Soviet Union defend itself against Hitler's aggression? This takes place off the coast of Newfoundland. Behind them you see two Naval War College graduates, Admiral Harold Betty Stark, Nickname Betty on the right, Chief of Naval Operations, Class of 1923 War College, and behind Roosevelt, Admiral Ernest J. King at this point, commander of American Naval Forces in the Atlantic and sued to succeed Admiral Stark as Chief of Naval Operations, Class of 1933 of the Naval War College. Two of Roosevelt's top advisors on strategy. The crews of the American ships, British ships together for a religious ceremony taking place during this summit meeting off the coast of Newfoundland. Again, symbolic that the British and American people have to work together to turn back the aggression of Nazi Germany. One of the major results of the Atlantic Conference is the Atlantic Charter. And here's the whole Atlantic Charter. Eight paragraphs. And you can see it's signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. It's publicly released. No secret document here. These are American and British war aims in the Second World War. And you'll notice that point number six, paragraph six, after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, we would call this regime change today, right? Again, the United States isn't in war. But already, Roosevelt is calling for regime change in Germany. Nazi conquests have to be rolled back and the Nazi regime has to be overthrown. Again, remember, keep the chronology in mind here. This is before Pearl Harbor and the US entry into the war. The US has already stated what a more peaceful, better world will look like. That better world means the end of the Nazi regime. Well, Roosevelt comes back from the Atlantic Conference and you ask American public opinion, what do you think about this? Should the US go into war against Germany? Well, you can see what the opinion is. 74% say no, only 21% say go into the war. Well, now another question. Do you think the US should want to see Germany defeated even if it has a risk of getting into war? In other words, should we go to war with Germany? Heck no. Do you want to see Germany defeated even if it means going to war? Defeat Germany. Yeah, almost 60%. Stay out, almost 40%. No opinion, 5%. Now, what does this polling show? Well, first of all, it shows that 5% of the American public are clueless. But other than that, it shows that the American people don't want to fight Germany because they know it'll be a costly endeavor, costly and treasure and lives as it turned out to be. But they also understand the danger from Nazi Germany and want to see Nazi Germany defeated. They'd like to see somebody else defeat Nazi Germany. Again, that the US be the arsenal democracy, not the foot soldiers of democracy. Again, this is a problem that Roosevelt has. How do you convince the American people of the danger that they face from Nazi Germany? Well, at this time too, there's a danger in the Pacific. American public opinion, if you ask them and said, Japan's aggression in China, should the US take a hard line toward that? Again, should the US take steps to rein in, to contain Japan, even if it means risking war? Look at this, the American people here are much more concerned and are willing to take a hard line against Japan even if it means war. And hence, the United States does take a hard line toward Japan. Economic sanctions against Japan, embargoes on oil, iron, the rest. Well, why is this? Well, for Roosevelt, the danger is, what will Japan do? They're fighting a war in China, but if they strike north against the Soviet Union or south against the British Empire, that will have an impact on the war in Europe. Soviet Russia is fighting for its life at the end of 1941 against Hitler's invasion. Britain is also fighting for its life in Europe. A Japanese attack north or south against the Soviet Union or the British Empire will tilt the balance of power in Europe in favor of Nazi Germany. Again, what goes on in Asia will have an impact in Europe. Again, these theaters are linked together strategically. Again, a big lesson there for us today. Well, to deter Japan, Roosevelt ordered the Pacific Fleet to Pearl Harbor in June of 1940. And here you see the battle line. Between the wars, the Naval War College was involved in gaming out the various tactics of engagements, battles against potential enemies. Here's the game floor over in Pringle Hall for international officers, their boardroom area, where these tactical exercises were played out. The commander of the U.S. Fleet in the Pacific, Admiral Richardson, he didn't want the fleet in Pearl Harbor. He wanted to move back to Los Angeles area to the West Coast because he believed that the fleet's readiness could be improved there. He was also afraid that the forces he had were not capable of executing an offensive war plan against Japan. If Japan attacked the Soviet Union or attacked the British Empire, again, he thought that the navy wasn't ready, didn't have the numbers of ships needed or the readiness to fight Japan. He made his views very clear to President Roosevelt. In fact, he was positively rude to the president in a meeting at the White House. The result was Admiral Richardson was relieved of command. Well, the leader of the Japanese main fleet, Admiral Yamamoto, he had his plan. The war would begin by striking at the British Empire. That means also taking the Philippines and Guam and Wake Island to protect sea lines of communication between the Japanese home islands and the big resource area of Southeast Asia to isolate China even further. And Yamamoto included an attack on Pearl Harbor where the American fleet was based. Well, here you see the program for the Army Navy game at the end of November 1941 held in Philadelphia. Look at the cover. 50 cents. That's a lot of money back then. Well, as you can see, Corps of Cadets, midshipmen holding their banners high, marching forward. Well, inside that program, you would see this, the battleship Arizona. And again, a bow on view of the Arizona as it plows into a huge swell. And again the caption underneath the photograph says that despite the claims of air enthusiasts, no battleships have yet been sunk by bombs. Talk about creepy. This is the end of November. And of course, in just a short period of time, the Arizona would be destroyed by bombs from the air. Again, the Greeks would call this, the ancient Greeks would call this hubris, that somehow you're challenging the gods and saying, ah, I'm invulnerable. No, you are very vulnerable. The gods will tell you. Well, the Japanese carriers, six of them steaming toward Pearl Harbor, readying their planes, launching, beginning the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, magazine explosion, forward magazine explosion that destroys the Arizona. Again, today, the Arizona Memorial. The next day, the New York Times headline. And the next day, President Roosevelt asking for a declaration of war against Imperial Japan, December 8th, 1941. And here's the speech that he gave. A first draft prepared for him by speech writers. He then took his own hand to it. And as you can see, he made an important adjustment in the very first sentence. Originally, it was yesterday, December 7th, 1941, comma, a date which will live in world history. Boy, is that vanilla. No real spice on that one. And you can see what Roosevelt did. He took out the commas, put in dashes, and also took out the words world history and put in infamy. Again, you can listen to this speech yesterday, December 7th. Pause. A date which will live in infamy. And from that day to our own, Pearl Harbor is seen as that day in infamy. Again, Roosevelt owning that speech. Well, a few days later on December 11th, Hitler went to the Reichstag, the rubber-stamped German Parliament, to ask for a declaration of war against the United States. And in that, he pointedly attacks Roosevelt. This man, meaning Roosevelt harbored one desire. What is it? To bring about a war. Hitler's the peaceful guy. Roosevelt is the warmonger. Roosevelt's trying to bring about war. Now, why does Roosevelt want war in Hitler's mind? Well, because the policy of the United States is unlimited world dictatorship. The U.S. real aim, unspoken, is to dominate the world. Again, in Hitler's mind, the U.S. is the malevolent force in the world, not Nazi Germany, not Imperial Japan. Well, for Roosevelt, what is one of the big lessons from Pearl Harbor? A terrible lesson, he said, is that the United States can't count upon the two oceans for security. Our adversaries can reach out and attack us in the Western Hemisphere. That the U.S., to protect itself, has to be more engaged in the world. The new world must play a role in the old world to provide for the security of others from aggression. Otherwise, that threat will come home. Well, here's the little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia. Three and a half years of war, Roosevelt in April of 1945 went to Warm Springs for some relaxation. And there you can see him in his chair. It's a small, very modest house, by the way, sitting there reading, reflecting. While there, he posed for a portrait. And while having his portrait painted by an artist, he said, I have a terrible headache. And he slumped over. He had a cerebral hemorrhage. He was quickly taken to the bedroom right next to where he was sitting, the living area, dining area. And doctors were called in, but he passed away. The portrait is called the Unfinished Portrait of Roosevelt. It gives you some idea of what it might have looked like had it been fully completed. So what can we learn from Roosevelt's time? Well, one, that the United States has to remain engaged in the world. Roosevelt, his legacy, legacy to the American people, is that the United States, with its power, with its might, has to be engaged. Otherwise, otherwise, the old world will come back and go after the new world. We can't be secure here in the Western Hemisphere if we don't help by providing for security in a wider world. Thank you very much. Thank you, Professor Maurer, for that great lecture. I really enjoyed listening to that tonight. Do we have any questions here in the audience for Professor Maurer? Any of those on Zoom have any questions? I did have a question for myself. Were there any a small group of policymakers that followed Roosevelt for the last 15 years and that he had as a core group that helped him think through these challenges? He had a number of very talented people. And one of the most important was Admiral Leahy, who during the war in 1942 became what today we would call the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It didn't officially exist, but that's what his role was. But he was also the Chief of Staff to the President. So he saw the President almost every day. So here you have a Navy officer who is playing a large role with the President in shaping the President's views and protecting the President too. President Roosevelt had the highest regard for him. And as a consequence, that's one of the most important advisors that Roosevelt had. He also had inner circle of people that advised him on domestic politics through the years. So Roosevelt was a charmer though. And one of the things that people remarked about Roosevelt is that you would go in and talk to the President and you would walk out thinking, oh, I've got the President's ear. The President really admires me. The President's going to do what I say. And then another person would come in and have the exact opposite policy. And the President would make them go away thinking that they had the President's ear. So Roosevelt was quite good at charming people and letting them think that they had real influence while he's making up his own mind about things. But Admiral Lee, he is one of the most important figures. And I want to highlight him in this period of the Second World War. Thank you. Any other questions for Professor Maurer? All right, with that, then I guess we'll close for this evening. We've gone over about four minutes. But thank you very much, everyone, for coming and listening. Thank you, everyone, that's on Zoom, the 50 or 60 or so that we had for the past hour. And we look forward to seeing you in three weeks when Professor Conan talks about the history of Narragansett Bay. So thank you and good night.