 Welcome back. Having outlined the general structure of the verb group in the verb in present-day English part 1, let us now take a closer look at the classification of the types of verbs within the verb group. Generally we can draw the following subdivision. We can subdivide the verbs into auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs on the one hand and then we have further subdivisions. So, let us first of all associate some examples with these four types of verbs. Here they are. For example, do is known as a primary auxiliary verb, could is a secondary auxiliary verb, b is another primary auxiliary, go is of course a full verb, a lexical verb, dance is such a verb. Then we have another secondary auxiliary verb, happen to is what some people call a definitive verb, have is a primary auxiliary verb and will finally is another secondary auxiliary verb. The most central distinction can be drawn between auxiliary verbs on the one hand and lexical verbs on the other. There is a set of criteria that help us to distinguish these two central types. These criteria can best be remembered as the nice criteria because the initial letters N, I, C, E make up this word. And in fact here the initial letters stand for particular syntactic context such as negation, the N, inversion the character I, code or coding the C and emphasis, well that is associated with the character E. Let's look at these four syntactic contexts that distinguish auxiliary verbs from lexical verbs in more detail. Let's start with the N in negation. Negation in present day English generally requires the insertion of the negative particle not into the sentence. So we have here a sentence structure and generally we would expect that we could insert not for example after the verb. However, with this rule we could generate sentences such as I come not, I go not, he sleeps not and you know of course these sentences are ungrammatical. To build negative sentences we need an auxiliary verb. So we need this rule where we now insert the negative particle not after the lexical verb but after the auxiliary verb. And now we have a rule S auks not V and we will generate forms such as I may not come, I am not going. Well and what do we do if there is no auxiliary in the corresponding assertive sentence? Well then we insert the dummy auxiliary do to generate structures such as he does not sleep. So negation without auxiliary support is impossible in present day English. Only auxiliary verbs can be combined with a negative particle not. We have a similar situation in the second context the context that is exhibited by the character I inversion. Now inversion in present day English that is the formation of questions and also of statements with proposed adverbials. Such structures generally require the flipping of subject and verb. So this is the normal rule subject and verb exchange their positions you get verb and subject. However with such a rule you could generate structures like these come I go I sleep see and of course you know they're all ungrammatical. So again we need an auxiliary verb here to get this rule subject auks verb becomes auks subject verb. And now we get grammatically correct sentences such as may I come am I going and so on and so forth. And again if there is no auxiliary in the corresponding declarative sentence we insert the dummy auxiliary do and get structures such as does he sleep. So again inversion without auxiliary support is impossible in present day English only auxiliary verbs can swap their positions with the subject. The next context is referred to as code or coding. And this is a syntactic operation where a lexical verb is replaced that is it is coded by an auxiliary verb. Take this little passage here perhaps you should here we have auxiliary verb but I don't know whether he will do you think he must know yesterday he did. We have four auxiliary verbs and they could code for example a simple verb such as go perhaps you should go but I don't know whether he will go do you think he must go know yesterday he did go. This is one possibility of course such a coding principle could also code more complex structures such as perhaps he could join the army but I don't know whether he will join the army do you think he must join the army know yesterday he did join the army. So coding again is a typical property of auxiliary verbs in present day English but not of lexical verbs. The final context we have to discuss is the context that is denoted with a character e namely the emphasis context in order to emphasize another verb or the state or action denoted by it. Several strategies are available for example we could use adverbs for reasons of emphasis instead of saying I go we could say I really go. Or I definitely came. We could of course also use intonation I go I came. So these are possibilities of placing emphasis on the verb. However, a more common technique is the use of an auxiliary verb. And here we have the examples I do go I did come. Thus emphasis is another central property of auxiliary verbs. And so the nice criteria negation inversion coding and emphasis they distinguish auxiliary verbs from lexical verbs. Let us now look at the auxiliary verbs in more detail auxiliary verbs have a helping function within a sentence. They constitute a close class of words and can be subdivided into primary auxiliaries and secondary auxiliary verbs. Although auxiliary verbs have different functions within the verb group, they have one syntactic function in common. They act as the operator when they occur as the first verb of a finite verb group. Here are some examples is is the first element he asking questions has he been asking questions will he have been asking questions. So in all these sentences we have the operator that is the auxiliary in the first position. Let's now look at the primary auxiliaries and of course as you may know the three verbs be have and do are the primary auxiliary verbs. They may be used in two ways. They can be used as auxiliary verbs that is in their auxiliary use or they can be used as lexical verbs. Let us look at the auxiliary use first where they retain only some features of a lexical verb. So for example they are inflected for number in the present tense forms and so they exhibit subject verb agreement. He third person has third person he has gone I first person am first person I am going. Well then they have past tense forms had was were did and so on but note that there are also other auxiliary verbs such as needed and dead. We will come back to them later that also have past tense forms. Well then they can be used as participles having finished being hurt but here we have to be careful. Do is an exception the form doing exists but it cannot be used as an auxiliary that is it cannot not be used with a verbal complement. So the primary auxiliary verbs are morphologically almost as complex as lexical verbs. They exhibit a more or less full inflectional paradigm that sometimes is even larger than those of lexical verbs. And the classical example is of course B where we have these members B M R is was were being and being so eight members in the inflectional paradigm. In special contexts B haven't do can also be used as lexical verbs that is in the so-called copula function. So let's look at this use in more detail. So let's first of all look at some examples. Here is a typical examples of B haven't do in their copula function. We are in the garden. We have an important match. We did our homework. The term copula refers to the verb B and copula verbs are those that are functionally equivalent to B. However, the copula use in sentences other than declaratives is restricted whereas B and have can satisfy the nice context do cannot. Let's illustrate this using the example of negation. We are not in the garden. Certainly the negative context is a tier two. We have not an important match here at works but we did not our homework is ungrammatical. And furthermore it's quite interesting to note that contractions such as aren't haven't etc. are impossible in these construction so we cannot say something like we aren't in the garden. We haven't an important match. This doesn't work. So in acting as main verbs have and B can stand before not in negative sentences. They can also appear before the subject in question but again only B and have can occur in such positions. Here are the examples. Are we in the garden? Have we an important match but did we our homework doesn't work? So much for the primary auxiliary verbs and their possibility of being used in copula function. Let's now look at the secondary auxiliary verbs which are opposed to primary auxiliaries. They can only function as auxiliary verbs and have no copula function. The secondary auxiliary verbs or modal verbs can be grouped into central and marginal secondary auxiliaries or well let's add that verb here modal verbs moguls. The central ones occur in four pairs where originally in previous periods of the English language these were true present tense past tense pairs. For example there's canon could, shall and would, will and would, may and might. Where for example would was the original past tense form of willan, wolde in old English will, would. Today specific modalities make up their meaning that is the degrees of hypotheticality in may and might, degrees of willingness in will and would or degrees of ability in can and could. Here are the marginal modal verbs or secondary auxiliaries need, dare, ought to and used to. Modal verbs are often referred to as defective verbs. They are restricted for example morphologically. They do not form a third person singular cans, woods, impossible. They have no past tense form anymore we should say so would is not the past tense of will anymore because there is a different degree of hypotheticality involved as I said. However we could say needed and dared. These are forms but need and dare are marginal modal verbs or secondary auxiliaries anyway and they do not have participle such as willing, woulding, maying, mighting etc. Syntactically there are also restrictions. One restriction is that the verbal complement is always a bare infinitive, never an infinitive with two. Modal verbs do not form imperative sentences such as will go, might come. Modals always constitute the first element of the verb group. He will, well let's mark that, he will have been going. It's always the first one and finally the central modal verbs cannot occur in copular function. It's a little bit different with need and dare where you can say something like he needs some money for example where you would have a copular function. So let us summarize. Having drawn a distinction between auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs on the basis of the nice criteria where the auxiliary verbs clearly satisfy all nice context but the lexical verbs do not. Having drawn this first distinction and having further discussed types of auxiliaries using morphosyntactic restrictions where we say that primary auxiliary verbs are less restricted than secondary auxiliary verbs what remains is a discussion of lexical verbs so these verbs over here and their possibility of being subdivided into full verbs on the one hand and continuative verbs on the other. To do this however I invite you to be part of a separate e-lecture which will deal with exactly these aspects. So until then thanks for your attention and see you again.