 Two main ways in which we can reduce the toxicity of cycad seeds is through periods of leaching. In papers that are written about the Aboriginal methods for doing this, there's basically a separation based on time, brief leaching defined as anything up to a 24-hour period and prolonged leaching beyond that. Now the important thing about leaching processes is that any toxin that's present in a solid form, we want to be able to leach out of the substance in or the outside material into an aqueous form. The easiest way to do that is just to throw it in water, particularly running water. Running water is very important because what's going to happen is that any buildup in the concentration of the ions in the water is going to be carried away. So therefore, we're not likely to set up an equilibrium. We're going to continue to remove these. What we want to do is to turn the solid toxin into an aqueous form, one that will dissolve in water and one that we can then rinse away. The differences between brief leaching and prolonged leaching aren't just the time differences, of course. They are often in the amounts of substances, the quantities of substances, the concentration of substances that can be removed. A third method that is used to make, to ensure that psycad seeds are safe for consumption is through aging. And what I'll have a look at is just a quick comparison between each of these three methods. So the first method is the brief leaching. Firstly, the psycad from this genus, psychus. Seeds are harvested. What happens to them is they are then heated up and cracked, which allows the inside to be exposed. The inside of each of these seeds can then be effectively sliced, dried and ground or pounded. In each of the three situations, they will then be leached often for a period of up to 24 hours in running water. That will allow, so as chemists, we would understand that certainly these sorts of processes are going to have an increase in the surface area. By cutting them, grinding them, or pounding them, we're increasing the surface area and therefore we are allowing the reaction to occur over a larger surface area at a greater rate. This is one method to make these seeds safe for eating. Prolonged leaching occurs where, I guess, what we do is start with the same sort of processes, so a bit of drying occurring first of all on the heat. Then the seeds are crushed and then the leaching is carried out for now a much more substantial amount of time. Running water, again, is important if available, but these seeds can actually be left in small streams, or lakes, billabongs, where the water is still. And of course, that means that they often need to be left for a much longer time. That agitation that occurs in running water is not going to occur to the same extent in still water. We're going to need to give it a lot more time in order for those toxins to leach out. Once again, once that has occurred, then often what happens with these seeds is they're ground and made into, like, breads and roasted. The final one is the aging one. Now, aging occurs more as a passive kind of process. It occurs where the seeds have been found, where they've been lying for some period of time, so that can be under the plants themselves, or ones that have been actively buried for some period of time, which can then be redugged back up again. And at some stage, they will be to the people edible. Of course, it takes an experienced eye to know what to look for, to be able to ensure that what you're eating is safe to eat. And again, they can just be eaten seeds or ground into pastes and then roasted, made into breads and that sort of thing. So these are three different methods that are applied to ensure that the toxic chemicals that are found inside of the cycad seeds are removed, and so that they are then safe for human consumption. Each of these is relying, not so much the third one, but certainly the first two, is relying on the fact that we can enable reactions to occur over long periods of time, or at least chemical processes to occur over long periods of time, if we can have a solid substance that will dissolve in water, and if we can continue to ensure that that substance continues to leach out of the seeds. Thanks for watching.