 Lecture 44, As-Salaam-Alaikum. Welcome to the virtual university's course on business and technical communication. In this lecture, we will continue looking at how to give speeches and oral presentations. In the last lecture, we learned to categorize speeches and presentations according to their purpose. We also looked at how to analyze audience for speeches and presentations and we started discussing the steps required in planning a speech or a presentation. In this lecture, we will learn to develop a body and a clothes for a long formal presentation. We will also learn how to select, design and use visual aids that are appropriate for various types of speeches and presentations. And finally, I will talk about how you can deliver your speech or presentation and how to handle audience questions effectively. Let us start by looking at the body of the presentation. We talked about planning the effective beginning of the presentation in the last lecture and today we will continue with the main body of the presentation. The bulk of your speech or presentation will be devoted to a discussion of the three or four main points that you want to talk about. You will use the same organizational patterns that you would use in a letter, memo or report, but you will keep things much simpler than in a long report for example. Your two goals are making sure that the structure of your speech or presentation will be clear and making sure that your organization will keep your audience's attention. Two goals would be, one is that your speech or presentation structure is clear and the other is that you can keep your audience's attention. Because if your presentation is not clear, then obviously the audience will not understand and if you do not understand them, then their attention will not be clear. So these are the two things that go together and you have to keep these two things in mind. Now how will you emphasize structure? To show how ideas are related in oral presentations, you will rely more on words. For these small links between sentences and paragraphs, one or two transitional words will be enough. Words like therefore, because in addition etc will be enough to show transition and they will be enough to show the relationship of ideas in oral presentations. To link major sections of the speech or presentation, you will need complete sentences such as now that we have reviewed the problem, let us have a look at the solutions. And also every time you shift topics, you will need to stress the connection between ideas. And also every time you shift topics, you will need to stress the connection between ideas. So, first of all if you are talking about one topic and then you are talking about the other element in the same presentation, then you will need to stress the connection between ideas. And also, if you are talking about the other element, then you will need to stress the connection between those ideas so that the audience will know how and why it came out. If you do not emphasize the connection, then your presentation will seem unrelated. The different ideas in your presentation will not make any sense. You can also emphasize the structure by summarizing what has been said before and previewing what is to come. And the longer the speech or presentation, the more important these transitions become. When you present many ideas, the audience has trouble absorbing them and seeing the relationship amongst them. Therefore, listeners need clear transitions to guide them to the most important points. They need transitions to pick up any ideas they may have missed. If there is a long presentation, then there is a lot of chance that because the information is being given a lot, then there is a lot of chance that the audience, the listeners will miss something or they have to understand something. So, if you summarize those things, if you provide transition elements, then it will be easier to understand. If they have missed something, then they can pick up. If their attention has been wandered a little, they will also be able to understand what are the important points. Therefore, if you repeat the important points, if you repeat the key points in a presentation, then you can compensate for lapses in the audience's attention. You can also call attention to the transitions by the use of gestures or changing the tone of your voice or introducing a visual aid. The second thing we did, which is very important, when you are planning for the main body and developing the main body, the second important thing was that you can hold your audience's attention. The first important thing was that the structure of your presentation is good and I gave you some tips about how that structure will be good. You will introduce your transitional elements. You will also show the connections between the topics. You will summarize one topic and preview it in the beginning of the next topic. Now, let's see how you can keep the audience's attention well. Let's have a look at a few helpful tips that will be useful for you in keeping your audience's attention. You can relate your subject to the audience's needs. People are interested in things that affect them personally. So, present every point in light of the audience's needs and values. Obviously, when you want to hold the audience's attention, the things that you are talking about are the needs and values of the audience. When you mention them, there is a lot of chance that the listeners will want to hear them. But if you do it in such a way that the audience doesn't know what is the connection with us or what is the benefit of listening to them, obviously, they won't hear it. They will feel that we are wasting our time. So, relate your subject to your audience's needs. And the second important tip is that you should explain the relationship between your subject and familiar ideas. By showing how your subject is related to ideas that the audience already understands, you give people a way to categorize and remember your points. If you tell a connection of your subject, you will relate it to it. With the previous knowledge of the audience, it will be easier for the listeners to remember your ideas and they can categorize them. They can put them in some category. If they feel that what you are talking about is outside their scope, then it will be difficult for them to absorb it. And if they can associate it with something, then it will be easier for them to remember and absorb it. You can also hold the audience's attention by introducing variety in your speech or your presentation. Now this is the main body. Now let's have a look at the closing of the presentation and how to make the closing effective. The close of a speech or presentation is almost as important as the beginning because audience's attention peaks at this point. When you started the presentation, people were sitting in a room. You have to draw them towards your presentation. So your introduction is very important that it is effective. After that, you can keep their interest high. And keep the main body of your presentation so that you can keep the audience's attention and interest high. Now when they hear what was in the main presentation, there is one point that their attention is the highest. They are the most engrossed in what they are hearing. Then you go towards your conclusion. When you have said all your main things, now you want to tell the nature of it. So plan to devote about 10% of the total time to the ending. You have 10% of the time for the ending so that your time is running out and you have to finish your presentation quickly. Begin your conclusion by telling listeners that you are about to finish so that they will make one final effort to listen intently. And don't be afraid to sound obvious. When you start going towards your conclusion, you should tell the audience that you are about to finish. If they have a little tension here and there, then they will start listening to you immediately so that they will know that you are about to finish the presentation. Now listen to me quickly so that we get the control of the presentation. And if the presentation is not finished and our attention had gone somewhere else, then we should know what happened. Say you can say something like in conclusion or to sum it all up or finally, you can use this type of transition. You can use such a marker so that the audience will know that you are almost at the final leg of your presentation and your presentation will be finished in a few minutes. Once you have planned how to get everyone's attention, repeat your main idea. When you have seen that all the people have come towards you again and are paying attention to you, then repeat your main idea of your presentation so that even the people who have lost their attention can remind you again about what the presentation is about and then their focus will come towards the presentation. Be sure to emphasize what you want the audience to do or think. If at the end of your presentation you want the audience to take a step, do something or start thinking about something. You might not want them to do something. You might just want them to think about something. Then emphasize what it is. Don't be afraid of this because you are obviously telling them that you want to tell them something. You can tell them that it would be better that they should do this or take the idea that you want them to think about and emphasize it. Then state the key motivating factor. How will the audience benefit by doing what you suggest that they should do or by thinking the way that you are suggesting that they should think? What is the motivating factor for them? What is the benefit for them to listen to you? Also in your close, reinforce your theme by repeating the three or four main supporting points. Whatever your three or four main supporting points tell them again so that your discussion is reinforced. And basically generally a few sentences are good enough to refresh people's memories. You don't need to repeat the entire presentation again. Just a few sentences that reinforce your main points so that people remember that this is what happened. You only have to do this in long presentations. Remember that all these discussions are about long presentations. In short presentations you don't need to do so much repetition because it is obvious that if it is a 10 to 15 minute presentation then people will only remember what you said. If it is a longer presentation then you will have to repeat it again. Now some speeches and presentations require the audience to reach a decision or to agree to take specific action. It can also be that you don't just have to make a conclusion you have to make a decision as a result of your presentation or you have to make a decision on what to do next. So this can be a next step after your closing. And in such a case the closing provides a good wrap up. It shows that your closing was clear. You indicated that the presentation has been wrapped up and then you can discuss the next steps. If the audience has agreed on an issue that was covered in the presentation began to review the consensus in a sentence or two. If there has been a consensus during your presentation and the audience has agreed then you repeat the consensus in your closing in one or two sentences. If the audience has not agreed on a consensus if it has not been decided on what to do and how to proceed then make it clear that there has not been a consensus. If the decision has not been made then you highlight it. By saying something like this we seem to have some fundamental disagreement on this question. There are many times when there are points where people don't agree then you highlight them so that there is a doubt that this is a decision. And after highlighting this you can then suggest a method for resolving the differences. Obviously it is not enough to say that there are some differences or some issues that have not been solved. Your job is to tell how the issues will be solved because in a business situation it is not necessary that you identify the problems until you give solutions then your work cannot go ahead. So at this point then you will suggest some solutions. If you expect any action then you must explain who is responsible for doing what. If you feel that the problem needs to be solved then you will tell who has to do what. If you are in this position that you have to make a decision or you can suggest that if these people share this work then it should be solved or we can reach a conclusion. One effective technique is to list the action items all the things that need to be done. You can make a list of them and include an estimated completion date and the name of the person who is responsible. So when you make a list in which you will know that you have to do this work till this time or till this date and these people will be responsible for these work. Then it will be done very easily and what will not be done will be done by the concerned people so that people can follow up with them. And then you can present this list in a visual aid that can be seen by the entire audience and ask each person on the list to agree to accomplish his or her assigned task by the target date. Obviously you cannot decide who has to do what till this date. You will just make a list and then you will show your audience and you will take an agreement that the work that you are telling is also ready to be done and whatever you have suggested you can finish that work till that date or not. So when you are showing the list to your audience then you can also note and by getting this commitment publicly you get the best insurance that something will happen because obviously the audience who are responsible for these work you have delegated the work and now you have asked everyone to tell them that you can do this work till this date or not. When they agree then they made a commitment that this work will be done. So that is the best way to work done in such a situation. If the required action is likely to be difficult then make sure that everyone understands the problems that are involved. You do not want people to leave the presentation thinking that their tasks will be easy only to discover that the jobs are quite demanding. So whatever work you have has the right impression. Do not try to misguide people. Do not give them the impression that the task is very easy when it is quite difficult. If you do this then it will be easy to do difficult work and on that basis people will take agreement that they can do that work whereas when they actually go out to do that work then it will not be your work. So if there are enemies just tell them in the presentation that these are the enemies and if you have a solution then you can suggest that too. But from this at least the people who will agree that we can finish this work they will know what are the enemies involved they will not have any excuse to finish that work. Or if they feel that we will not be able to do this work then they will tell you that they can give other work. If people start doing a work and they start thinking it is easy and then it will be difficult then it will be discouraging and demotivating. And obviously nobody wants people or workers or colleagues in their company who are discouraged and demotivated because then work cannot be finished. So this way you will use the clothes to alert to any potential difficulties in the required action. Now you also need to end your closing. What will you say that it will be effective and when you go out of the room people will remember it. You need to make your final remarks enthusiastic and memorable. Even if part of your speech will be downbeat try to develop your ending on a positive note. In your presentation there are some parts that are negative and demotivating maybe you are giving information that the audience likes or the work on the basis of that information is of no use. But when you finish your closing then take something positive so that the audience has a positive impression. Express the benefits of an action or express confidence in the listener's ability to accomplish the work ahead. If you have given them a difficult job to your audience then in the ending you should show that you have confidence that they can finish the work in a better way. In this way you are creating confidence in your colleagues and enthusiasm in them. Or you can end the closing with a question or a statement that will leave your audience thinking. One way to finish your closing is to finish on a positive note to reinforce your audience to create confidence. The other way is to ask a statement or a question in the end of your presentation to which the audience can leave the room remember that your final words round up the presentation that is what the people will remember as they are walking out of the room and as you are leaving the podium you will want to leave the audience with a satisfied feeling and a feeling of completeness. Also remember that the close is not the place to introduce new ideas or alter the mood of the presentation although you will want to close the presentation on a positive note avoid a staged finale keep your ending natural. As I suggested for the introduction do not have a staged introduction in the same way do not have a staged finale. Now after you have finished the presentation we come to the question and answer session along with your introduction body and those you will include time for question and answer session in your presentation because if you do not have a question and answer session, if there is no interaction with the audience then you might as well write a report and circulate it amongst all the people the benefit of the presentation is that you can interact directly with the audience if you do not have any intention to interact with the audience then you should write a report and give it to the audience the important thing to consider when you are developing your speech is the nature and timing of the audience's interaction where do you want your audience to interact and what type of interaction are you expecting from the audience responding to questions and comments during the presentation can interrupt the flow of your argument and reduce your control of the situation if you will be addressing a large group, particularly a hostile or unknown group then questions can be dangerous and in such a case then the best bet, the best thing to do would be to ask people to hold their questions till after the presentation till you have concluded your remarks so if you are presenting a large group especially if you feel the group is hostile or unfamiliar then you can ask them questions after the presentation you can ask them please feel free to ask any questions after the presentation is over so they will know not to ask questions during the presentation on the other hand if you are working with a small group and you need to draw out ideas and you want the interaction during your presentation then encourage comments from the audience throughout the presentation when you are giving the structure of your presentation then you can say please feel free to ask questions wherever you want and also then through the presentation at different points you can invite questions you can invite comments so that will show to the audience the interaction now visual aids is a very important thing which you will use in your presentation because obviously if you are just standing in front of someone then it is not necessary that they can absorb all your questions and remember them so you will have to use visual aids to highlight a lot of things visual aids dramatically increase the audience's ability to absorb and remember information from a purely practical standpoint there are convenience for the speaker if you have visual aids it is not easy for you to remember things you can use visual aids as a tool for remembering details of the message and if it is a long presentation then it is not easy to remember details especially in a long presentation visual aids are very useful novice speakers they are new to presentations also like visual aids because they draw attention away from them they get attention from them and go to visual aids so the new speakers who are unconfident they get reprived now when you think of developing and presenting your visual aids you need to keep in mind that two types of visual aids are used to supplement speeches and presentations text visuals or graphic visuals text visuals consist of words and they help the audience to follow ideas because text visuals are simplified outlines of your presentation you can use them to summarize and preview your message and also to signal other important ideas and you can use them to indicate major shifts in thought on the other hand visual aids illustrate the main points they help the audience to grasp numerical data and other information that would be hard to follow if it was printed orally simplicity is the key to effectiveness when designing both types of visual aids whether it is text aid visuals or graphic visuals you need to keep them simple because people cannot read and at the same time the visual aids have to be simple enough so that the audience can absorb them and understand the information within a moment or two when the audience is watching they can hear you it will not be like you are standing quietly they are doing two things simultaneously so the visual aid has to be simple so that the audience can absorb it while they are listening to you as a rule text visuals are more effective when they consist of no more than 6 lines with a minimum of maximum of 6 words per line if you have text visual try not to have more than 6 lines and also produce them in large clear type using uppercase and lowercase letters with extra white space between lines of text do not use all capital letters because they become hard to read use capital letters and small letters together and have a large font also when you are looking at the size of the font make sure that it is large enough to be seen from any place in the room if there is a large auditorium and people are sitting there they should be able to see the text place the items in parallel grammatical form use telegraphic wording for example compensation source instead of saying only compensation whatever you use use the title everyone has a parallel form if you are writing in one list and if you are like this the audience will understand what you are saying it is a good idea to include both a noun and a verb in each item on your text visual you can use any of the graphic visuals you might show in a formal report like pie charts, bar charts, flow charts etc for text visuals we also said do not use more than 6 lines do not use more than 6 lines try to have a parallel form in each phrase in each item use a noun and verb in graphic visuals you can do a special variety you can use any of the graphics in a report mostly you can use in your graphic the graphic visuals used in oral presentations are simplified versions that appear in written documents so if you are using graphic visuals in a report just simplify them a bit and use them in your presentation for the same material also make sure that for a presentation you will eliminate anything that is not absolutely necessary to the message reports are very long you can add some extra information but you have to keep the presentation very concise so if there is something that is not there just remove it so that the audience does not get the interest to help the audience focus immediately on the point of each graphic visual use headings that state the message in one clear phase like earnings have increased by 15% then you can show visual aids when you present visual aids you will want people to have a chance to see your explanation so be sure that all members of the audience can see the visual aids you do not want to see the audience so make your visual aids visible allow the audience time to read a visual aid before beginning your explanation for one moment leave the visual aid on the screen or wherever it is or start your explanation and also limit each visual aid to one idea do not show more than one idea on one visual aid you also have to remember that you should illustrate only the main points not the entire presentation do not put everything in visual aid only the main points and do not use any visual aids that conflict with the verbal message the verbal message and the visual message correspond with each other paraphrase the text of your visual aid do not read it word to word obviously on your visual aid if the text is written you do not need to read it out because your audience can read it your job is to paraphrase it or to explain it because if you just read it it implies that the audience cannot read it or they cannot see it so you do not need to read it they can read it themselves you just need to paraphrase it and when you finish discussing the point that is illustrated by the visual aid remove it from the audience's view do not leave it there because if you reach the next point and the visual aid is placed the audience will get confused that you are talking about the same now you also need to select the right medium which type of visual aid to be used visual aids for documents are usually on paper when you want to write a report generally on paper the visual aid the graphs will be on paper which will be included in your report but for speeches and presentations you have a variety of media to choose from you can use handouts even in a presentation you may choose to distribute sheets of paper bearing an agenda an abstract supplementary data etc this is one way of visual aid or you can use chalkboards and whiteboards when you want to draw out ideas from a group of people they are very effective because you can write on them as people are talking to you as people are giving you ideas or you can use flip charts these are large sheets of paper at the top like a tablet and they can be propped on an easel so that you can flip the pages as you speak as there is a small note pad there is a big flip chart and you can write information on it as you are talking you can follow the pages or if people are giving you ideas you can also write on it or you can use overheads one of the most common visual aids in business is the overhead transparency which can be projected on a screen in full daylight you can write information on a transparency and show it on an overhead projector transparencies are easy to make whatever information you have you can type on a paper and you can use a plastic transparency which is the size of an A4 paper to make a photocopy or you can use 35mm slides the content on slides may be text graphics or pictures if you are trying to create a polished professional atmosphere you might find this approach worthwhile particularly if you you will be addressing a crowd that doesn't mind speaking in a darkened room whereas you can use the overhead transparencies in a Russian room you will have to darken the slides so if your audience thinks they will not mind talking to you or listening to you slides are very effective remember that you may need someone to operate the slide projector and that you will need to coordinate the slides with your speech obviously if you are speaking and the slide projector is somewhere away from you then you have to coordinate which slide will be shown and also you need to take a few minutes before your speech starts to verify that the equipment works properly whenever you are using electronic equipment slide projector, overhead projector or computer do check it before the presentation so that you are not standing to speak and your equipment doesn't work another form of visual aids can be with the aid of computers with a special projector a personal computer can be turned into a large screen or an intelligent chalkboard which allows you to create and modify your visual aids as the presentation unfolds power point presentations you must have seen a computer can be projected on a screen and you can also change it as you are speaking because you have a keyboard or computer when the presentation is over you can print out hard copies of the visual aids if they are interested also you can use a computer generated slide show which gives you the opportunity to make changes right up to the moment before you start speaking if you have made your presentation then you can start the presentation one minute earlier so that you don't have to go somewhere else and make it photocopy or prepare it earlier you can do the changes and then you can start your presentation there are other visual aids that you can use in technical or scientific presentations a sample of the product or material allows the audience to experience the subject directly models can be used if they are built to scale their convenient representations of the object film strips and movies can capture the audience's attention with color and movement so these are the two tips are good for showing demonstrations interviews and other events so these are also different media through which you can enhance your presentation but commonly used is what we talked about earlier now once you have planned the whole presentation you know what visual aids you are going to do then it becomes the final part of delivering the presentation it can be very good when you go in front of the audience you have a variety of delivery methods to choose from and some of them are easier to handle than others you can memorize your speech but unless you are a trained actor avoid memorizing an entire speech especially if it's a long one because you are likely to forget your lines and a memorized memorized speech often sounds very stiff and stilted don't try to memorize the speech because if you forget then it can be a big problem on the other hand you can memorize a quotation an opening paragraph or a few concluding remarks and that can bolster your confidence and strengthen your delivery so that your presentation becomes stronger if you are delivering a technical or complex presentation you may want to read it and officials are sometimes read out because the wording may be critical for example if you choose to read your speech practice long enough before so that you can maintain eye contact with the audience and while you are reading it out also you can speak from notes making a presentation with the help of an outline note cards or visual aids is probably the most effective and easiest delivery mode you have something to refer to when you have eye contact and interaction with the audience if your listeners look puzzled you can expand on a point or put it another way because you can see them you are only looking at the notes so you can also see the audience so if you feel that you don't understand your audience then you can explain it generally note cards are preferable to sheets of paper because nervousness is more evident note cards you can also speak impromptu but avoid speaking unprepared unless you have spoken countless numbers of times on the same topic or unless you are an extremely good public speaker if you are asked to speak of the cuff without preparation take a moment or two to think about what you are going to say and avoid the temptation to ramble don't come too far because you haven't practiced try to keep yourself confined to whatever you want to say regardless of which delivery mode you use make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with the subject whatever presentation you are using knowing what you are talking about is the best way to build up your self confidence it is also helpful to know how you will approach preparing for successful speaking delivering the speech and handling questions so if you planned it beforehand it definitely helps you can build self confidence by practice especially if you haven't had much practice in public speaking before even if you practice in front of a mirror try to visualize the room filled with listeners if you are practicing in front of a mirror keep in mind that there is a room filled with people put your talk on tape to check the sound of your voice and your timing, phrasing and emphasis and then you can listen to it and improve yourself if possible rehearse on a video tape to see yourself as your audience will see you go over your visual aids and coordinate them with the talk that is very important so that you are not talking about something else and the visual aid is showing something else and whenever you can check the location for your presentation in advance and locate the light switches and dimmers because if you want to use transparency or slides then you will need dimmers or light switches for computer projection you will need to dim some lights so you can familiarize yourself from the first location also check for any small but crucial items that you might need like chalk and eraser or whiteboard marker etc if you are addressing an audience that doesn't understand your language then consider using an interpreter any time that you make a speech or presentation to people from other cultures take into account cultural differences in appearance, mannerism and other customs in addition to adapting the content of your speech obviously if you are presenting with other cultures then you need to adapt your content to suit their needs and if you have any other customs that you might need to change or adapt according to their customs now when it's time to deliver the speech you might feel some stage fright don't get put off by this it's very natural most people get stage fright even professional actors so a good way to overcome your fears is to rehearse communication professionals have suggested other tips and we are going to have a look at them now prepare more material than necessary that's one very effective way of overcoming your nervousness if you know that your knowledge is much more if you know that you have good knowledge of the subject and your audience is genuinely interested in the topic and so are you also think positively about your audience about yourself and about what you have to say see yourself as a polished and professional presenter and your audience will see you as that as well be realistic about stage fright after all even experienced speakers feel butterflies in their stomach before they address an audience so don't worry if you have stage fright also tell yourself that you are ready use the few moments while you are arranging your materials to calm your nerves and to give yourself that self confidence by telling yourself that you are actually ready for this presentation and that you will do very well also before you begin speaking take a few deep breaths this will help calm you down and it will improve your delivery and have your first sentence memorized having your opening on the tip of your tongue helps you get started and everything else then starts falling into place it also shows the audience that you are confident and you are not stumbling when you start the presentation if your throat is dry drink some water tension often causes your mouth to become dry so it is best to have a few sips of water before you begin in fact you can also have a glass of water by your side while you are giving the presentation and sip during the presentation if you feel that you are losing your audience at any time during the presentation if you feel that their interest is the wonder of the audience then do not panic stop there try to pull back and involve them in the presentation that will get their interest back use your visual aids to maintain and revive audience interest visual aids especially those involving color and movement are much better way of getting back the audience's attention that you might have for them so if you feel that their attention is wandering then you are directing them point towards their visual aids and also keep going and things usually get better if you notice that their attention is wandering try to maybe get more enthusiasm in your voice change the tone of your voice if you feel that you have become too monotonous but keep going do not become nervous and stop and if you keep going and if your presentation is good then they will come back to it now what about handling questions at the end of the presentation the key to handling this question answer session effectively is preparation as well spend time before your speech to think about the questions that might arise including abrasive or difficult questions and prepare accordingly think a little bit ahead what kind of questions you can ask and prepare accordingly experts also suggest that key information or key statistics do not tell in your presentation and use them in question answer session however bear in mind that circumstances may require some changes in the answers that you prepare when someone poses a question focus your attention on that individual if the question is vague or confusing ask for a clarification give a simple direct answer if you understand the question clarify it and then answer also do not say more than you need to if you want to have enough time to cover all the questions if giving an adequate answer would take too long simply say I am sorry but we do not have enough time right now but if you see me after the presentation I will be happy to discuss this with you if you do not know the answer then do not pretend that you do if instead of presenting just say something like I do not have these figures I will get them for you as quickly as possible and also do not allow one or two people to monopolize the question period sometimes it happens that one or two people keep asking questions and others do not get the chance try to give everyone a chance to participate call on people from different parts of the room but if the same person keeps angling for attention say something like several other people have questions I will get back to you if time permits also if you feel that the audience or some members of the audience are using the question answer session to project themselves or to air their complaints or take the presentation away from you then you have to maintain control make sure that you maintain control you might admit that you and the questioner have a difference of opinion if you keep asking questions like this where you are having a conflict then you admit that you have a difference in opinion and offer to get back to the questioner after you have done more research if they catch you off guard and if you do not have some information then say you will get back to them with more information do not indulge in put downs which may backfire the questioner sometimes there are hostile questions and we also attempt to answer them but the audience will be more sympathetic with the questioner so avoid putting your audience down prepare the audience for the close of session by saying our time is almost up let's have one last question even if more people want to talk and after the reply if your last question summarize the main idea of the presentation and thank people for their attention conclude the same way you open by looking around the room and making eye contact and then gather your notes and leave the podium keep your shoulders straight up and your head up as well in this lecture we learnt to develop a body and a close for long formal presentations we also learnt how to select design and use visual aids for speeches and presentations and how to deliver a speech and presentation and handle questions effectively with this we come to the end of our lectures on speech and presentations until next time Allah Hafiz