 Thank you. I will focus on a specific country. I'll focus on Vietnam, which is a Very interesting country in the context of land rights institutions because Vietnam experienced a very radical change Revolutionary change I would say during the period of the late 1980s and during the 1990s and And for that reason Vietnam has received a lot of attention in the literature on on on land rights So What happened in the 80s and 90s was that in following the the doi moi reform program in 1988 Land use rights were handed over from the agricultural Collectives to individual households in 1993 a land law was adopted Which meant that people were going to get a land titles that allowed them to Not only gave you use rights, but also rights to exchange and to put up the land as security for loans and so on We see here the progress of land titling between in a period of six years from 1994 to 2000 the percentage of households with land use certificates the fact of titles going up from 23% to 90% so this was a huge change Which and many people have looked at this and found generally that it was that it was not only impressive and scope but also had a number of positive effects during this period so I'm going to Look at What followed after this period of revolutionary change what happened next were the the Was the The speed of progress kept up did Vietnam actually manage to fully complete the transition to a system of secure private land rights and market-based land transactions and We show that well in fact there is still now 30 years after these reforms began continued landing land tenure insecurity evidence of corruption and land administration Still incomplete land-tiring titling restrictions on crop choice and continued land fragmentation So there's still many things to work with for the for the for the Vietnamese government So a little bit about the literature that looked at these huge changes that took place during the the 1990s 1990s we have for example dough and I are that Document the rapid changes and find positive effects of land titling on investment in perennial crops in an all-farm label supply Rebellion and Fundawale look that these reforms in several papers found that the post reform land distribution so after you went from collective agriculture to household land use rights That post reform land distribution was actually both egalitarian and close to efficient There are remarkably few signs of corruption. They conclude there is rising landlessness, but this is not mostly driven by By distressed sales, but by paid people taking up new opportunities in the growing economy. So it's they conclude It's not a big problem Klaus as on Jin Look at various issues including the land rental markets find that they are actually quite efficient in terms of transferring land from the Less to the more efficient land users you went up and find the broke also find positive effects of land titles and yields So in general, it's a fairly rosy picture of the effects of these land reforms in Vietnam. So we look at We follow up on this and see okay. Are there is everything really so so so rosy So we do this by using a data set the Vietnam access to resources Household survey which has been implemented every second year from 2006 to 16 this has been funded by the Nida and by you and you wider and implemented in collaboration with local partners in in Vietnam, of course It's implemented in the rural areas of 12 provinces in Vietnam as you can see covers Basically all areas of the of the country Okay, so So what do we find so first if we look at again at the effects of all these land titles that were handed Handed out and we have nice data to do that because the bars collects Panel dates and not only at the household level But even at the at the level of the individual land plots the individual parcels so we can follow individual plots and see What happens when a plot is gets a land title as investment Change and so the LUC this is the land use the weather plot has a land use certificate a land title We see there are indeed some positive effects on Where the plot is irrigated it has some soil and water conservation infrastructure Not on perennial crops, but in general the picture is that there are we do find positive effects on investment goods of the of the land titles So this is so far consistent with what other people found that we see positive effects of the of the land titles Okay, but then how about the the continued progress of handing out land titles So this shows the share of land plots with a land use certificate and the Black bar is for the entire sample and then the other color bar the black line the other lines are for the different regions of Vietnam with a red river Delta and then and obviously the north or in the northern part of the country Central Highlands and the Mekong River Delta in the are in the in the south And so this is clearly in in contrast with what we see so on the first slide where we saw rapid Progress here we see basically over the ten years that we've considered we see a flat line we see no further progress and we see still that There's still a good fraction of land plots that have not been been registered Been issued with a land use certificate. So we do see in Vietnam also what Klaus talked about Move back in some cases to to informality we know that there is Significant from surveys Suggest that there is significant corruption in in the land administration You need to pay informal fees to get a land use certificate so that when people exchange land There is a temptation not to go and have that change registered and have an entire issue. These are Land in Vietnam land the land title is called red books. So that's so we have this strong Communist symbolism on the on the certificates of private property rights That's quite amazing Okay, so there's a land title so another issue that we have focused on a great deal is that is whether people are allowed to Grow to choose which crops to grow on their fields because one thing is as the land titles guarantee that you can that you have Tenure security you can exchange the plot But another aspect is whether you can choose yourself what to grow on the plot and this is in here Economic planning still plays a very large role in in in Vietnam despite all the economic Promarket reforms. We see the beginning of the survey more than 50% of the plots in our survey people do not Choose what to grow on the plot in in the vast majority of cases They're restricted to growing rice. We do see some change over the period. We have studied with a declining Trend but still to what the end of the of the period still around a third of plots Have restricted crop choice Clearly with the issue of these of these Land use certificates one thing that was expected was that land Markets land sales markets would pick up and that eventually during the process of structural transformation Farms would begin to to to to grow farm sizes would begin to grow would be gone begin to be to to To to go up but we have in Generally, we've seen fairly active rental markets But in but we but but land sales markets have not picked up very strongly and we see that also reflected in the In the development of farm size. So this is square meters the average Farm size in square meters. So a hectare up to the 10,000 square meters So we see the average farm size in in in Vietnam Listen in our sample is very very small is only about a third of a of a hectare and declining rather than than growing and This just shows the land sales market that the trend is is basically flat over the period We're looking at we do not see land markets picking up very strongly Land sales markets picking up in in terms of activity levels very strongly Even more remarkably we look at here how do people park with their land people lose a plot of land How does that? Happen we see among the people who in 2016 the most recent round of the survey Among the plots that Peter the households had had parted with only 17% In only 70% of cases that happened through the land market the sales market and It's more common still it's more common to be expelled from the land By the state than to sell it If people expelled it's almost always by the state So this shows that there is continued issues of tenure insecurity and that the source of that insecurity is In the majority of cases is the state so this then of course Then begs the question if there is tenure insecurity in the state of the source of that insecurity What does it mean to be? Well connected to that state What do these clouds also talked about? Political connections that chiefs being better off than other people in Vietnam We looked at the effects of having Personal connections with people with with with with individuals with political or bureaucratic power Particularly we looked at the effect of having a relative outside your own household But they're relative who has holds some public office in the local government And so these are regressions for How much of your land has a land use certificate how much of your landers has a land title and then have well that's affected by Having this connection. So we see no it does actually no effect on on the land titling This is consistent with what people like rebellion and devalued concluded that that there was Not a lot of corruption in the in the distribution of Land rights, but when we then you'll get de facto Tenure security where you actually expelled from your land. Did you actually lose land tenure? Then we see a huge effect a large significant effect those who have Connections are much less likely to be kicked out of their of their land. So this suggests that there is Nepotism there is corruption in in the in the administration of land And and what does this? Imply well we looked then at also what does it mean to have these political connections for your For your willingness to invest in your land so We calculated how much people invest in things the value of people's investment of things like water pumps perennial crops such as as mango trees again, look at the effects of having political connections on this on this Variable and again we see strong positive effects that people who have political connections invest a lot more in In their land and this is here again. We've explored the the panel nature of this data set so we can We can follow we can have fixed effects in the in the models We can follow Individual households over time and see what happens when if people gain or lose a connection How does that? How do their investment levels change? So these results are arguably and not driven by those many unobservable household characteristics that could drive both your political connections and your your your ability and willingness to to invest And So we conclude that I mean certainly Vietnam's land reforms were Very far reaching and they had a number of positive effects. We do not dispute this But the reform process was never completed. This is Trotsky He believed that you know in permanent revolution But of course he was killed because most communists did not believe in permanent revolution And maybe the same as the case in the in when it comes to land reforms in in in Vietnam There was a period of revolutionary Change, but to an important extent that that that window of opportunity for rapid change has Shot and things are now not changing so fast and you can argue that arguably the reform process Which has not yet been fully completed. There is still important issues of tenure insecurity The source of that insecurity is largely the government Ten years in security seems to depend significantly on your political connections farms remain extremely small This is an and this is an important area not just in Vietnam, but also in other countries Small farms may not necessarily be an issue right typically we have talked about the inverse farm size productivity Relationship small farms means that land is distributed evenly between a lot of people But on the other hand farms of size of only a third of a hectare May not be well or certainly not well suited for using modern technologies so here we have a very important issue of potentially tensions between efficiency and and and equity and Perhaps if there are other things to do than farming as there increasingly is in in in a country like Vietnam then perhaps equity is not Necessarily a huge issue in terms of moving to to larger farm sizes And this is something which is on the policy agenda also in Vietnam should you do more to stimulate land markets Should you lift there's a land ceiling now actually, but it's a three hectares So it for many for most farmers is not binding, but but there are things that can But but there are moves to to to make policy changes here So I mean clearly what is hugely remarkable about Vietnam as with China is that we have seen such dramatic economic reforms in land institutions as well as in other areas without significant political reform the political system in Vietnam remains one one states authoritarian communist system But so maybe this shows that there is after all Political reform does after all constrain economic reform with this Government in place. We are not going to see a fully a complete a fully completed move to to to fully secure private land rights market-based transactions and so on So that's actually about what I had to say