 Adjectives, Pronouns and Numerals, from First Steps in Anglo-Saxon by Henry Sweet. Read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, Volume 2. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Adjectives, 48. Adjectives have two kinds of inflection, strong and weak. The weak inflections of adjectives are the same as those of weak nouns, except in the genitive plural, which has the strong adjective form. Adjectives take weak inflections when preceded by the definite article or other defining words such as this, singular, nominative, se go da wita, accusative, son e go dan wita, dative, son go dan wita, genitive, sa go dan wita, singular, nominative, sa go de wita, accusative, sa go de wita, dative, son go dan wita, genitive, sa go dan wita, singular, nominative, se go de dad, accusative, sa go dan dad, dative, sa de go dan da de, genitive, sa de go dan da de, plural, nominative, sa go dan wita, dative, sa go de wita, genitive, sa de go de wita, plural, nominative, sa go de wita, dative, sa go de wita, genitive, sa go de wita, plural, nominative, sa go de dad, dative, sa go de dad, genitive, sa go de dad, 49. Otherwise adjectives have strong inflections resembling partly those of strong nouns but more generally those are the personal pronouns, singular, nominative, go de kraft, accusative, go de kraft, dative, go dan krafty, genitive, go de krafty, singular, nominative, go de childe, accusative, go de childe, dative, go de childe, genitive, go de stildes, singular, nominative, go de queen, accusative, go de queenie, dative, go de queenie, genitive, go de queenie, plural, nominative, go de kraftas, dative, go dan kraftum, genitive, go da krafta, plural, nominative, go de childe, dative, go dan childe, genitive, go da childe, plural, nominative, go de queenie, dative, go dan queenum, genitive, go da queenie, 50, some take u in the feminine singular nominative and neuter plural, singular, nominative, some kraft, accusative, some ne kraft, singular, nominative, some childe, accusative, some childe, singular, nominative, some queen, accusative, some queenie, plural, nominative, some kraftas, plural, nominative, some childe, plural, nominative, some queenie, 51, the following are examples of the strong inflections of adjectives, John Alney mid-dangerv, he hath Michel mode, he one o da thar long et deed, Podum kuninge, ye davena that he se kustee, on anre deelre stowe, me is go de swapnes thars, threo punt godre butaran, se junta hath swifta hunas, ael tharshipu waro nivu, ael lum mannum guus, aelra witena yamol, 52, strong adjectives have an instrumental case, but only in the masculine and neuter singular, it has the same form as the dative of nouns, that is, e. In the feminine and plural, the dative, instrumental dative, is used instead the dative um, being used instrumentally, instead of e, in the masculine and neuter singular also. The instrumental and instrumental dative are used to express the instrument and manner of an action, and time when. The instrumental is often used with the preposition mid, mid michele mide, comparison. 53, the comparative is formed by adding ra, and always has weak inflection, thus from leof, dear or beloved, pleasant, is formed the comparative masculine leovra, more dear, neuter and feminine leovre, plural leovran, that is me leovre, 54, the superlative is formed by adding ost, and is inflected strong or weak in the same way as the positive, he is me alra manna leovost, si leovost aman, 55, some adjectives have vowel change in comparison, in which case the superlative ends in ist, as in ald, old, ildra, ildist, long, l'endra, l'engest, numerals, 56, the first two are inflected thus, nominative, masculine, dwegen, neuter, toa, feminine, toa, nominative, masculine, stre, neuter, streio, feminine, streio, dative, masculine, neuter, and feminine, duam, dative, masculine, neuter, and feminine, threem, genitive, masculine, neuter, and feminine, dweera, genitive, masculine, neuter, and feminine, streio, dweera, examples, dwein men, toa hoos, toa honda, mitwam hondum, thremen, threopum, 57, the others up to 20 are not inflected, the ty numerals are sometimes uninflected, sometimes inflected like adjectives, threitera, mannamayin, when uninflected the ty numerals are regarded as nouns and govern the genitive not only in a partitive sense, as in, he of slog, hira, thriti, but in other constructions, se kuning, heild, that riche, fifti, wintra, that hond, hundred, and that thuzen, thousand are nouns, thuzent kenra, kenpena, pronouns, 58, the following are the inflections of the personal pronouns, singular, nominative, ich, aye, accusative, mé, dative, mé, genitive, mean, singular, nominative, thu, thou, accusative, the, dative, the, genitive, thee, dual, nominative, we, we too, accusative, unk, dative, unk, genitive, unker, dual, nominative, cheat, ye too, accusative, ink, dative, ink, genitive, inker, plural, nominative, we, we three, accusative, us, dative, us, genitive, ure, plural, nominative, je, ye three, accusative, éo, dative, éo, genitive, éo, examples of the dual, 59, in addition to the pronouns of the third person, the definite article is used also in the sense of this one, he or she, etc., sé becoming, sé, singular, nominative, masculine, he or sé, accusative, hi ne or thone, dative, him or tham, genitive, his or thas, singular, nominative, neuter, he or that, accusative, he or that, dative, him or tham, genitive, his or thas, singular, nominative, feminine, he or sé, accusative, he or thah, dative, hi ne or thade, genitive, hi ne or thade, plural, nominative, masculine, neuter, and feminine, he or thaw, dative, him or tham, genitive, hira or thara, examples of sé, on kuning was on denu, sé was hoten rothkar, ich asho de he ne be tham, the sé in the first example may be translated who, 60, the possessive pronouns, mean, thien, unker, inker, ure, ewer, which are the genitives of the personal pronouns are inflected as strong adjectives, midminum handum, wei sind urum lavor de yetrewe, on ewer chastre, the genitives of the third person, his, hire, hira, are used as indeclinable possessives as in he sind on hira ad num huse, compared with wei sind on urum ad num huse, 61, the interrogative pronoun faw, who has inflections similar to those of sé, nominative, masculine, faw, accusative, fawne, nominative, neuter, fwat, accusative, fwat, nominative, feminine, faw, accusative, fawne, accusative, fawne, dative, masculine, neuter, and feminine, hwam, genitive, hwas, 62, the demonstrative, thes, this also has inflections resembling those of sé, singular, nominative, masculine, thes, accusative, thesne, dative, thesum, genitive, thesse, singular, nominative, neuter, thes, accusative, thes, dative, thesum, genitive, thesse, singular, nominative, feminine, thes, accusative, thas, dative, thesse, genitive, thesse, plural, nominative, masculine, neuter, and feminine, thas, dative, thesum, genitive, thesa, examples, thes aldaman, fwano'n komon je hider on this land, sé os erthe is swide broad, sé os sunne imth ym thas erthan, onnist sé os sunne is undr thisse erthan, al thas thing, 63, the relative pronoun is the indeclinable thes, thas thing thes each dude, it is often combined with sé to form the inflected relative séthe, who may sé beon ye salli, séthe on tham ye sallthum, surhunyan ne mo, end of adjectives numerals and pronouns from First Steps in Anglo-Saxon by Henry Sweet. Recording by J.R. Omehen. Lessons two through four from A Practical Grammar of the Latin Language by George J. Adler. Read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, volume two. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Lesson two, bensum alterum, of the first declension. A. The first declension comprises all substantives and adjectives which form their genitive in a'i. The nominative of such of these words as are of purely Roman origin ends in a, that of a few Greek words in e, s, and a's. Those in a and e are mostly feminine, the rest are masculine. The singular of a noun in a, in connection with mea, mai, and tua, dai, or your, is thus inflected. Nominative, my paper. Mea karta. Genitive, of my paper. Mea karta. Dative, two or four my paper. Mea karta. Accusative, my paper. Mea karta. Vocative, o my paper. Mea karta. Ablative, with or by my paper. Mea karta. Nominative, your table. Tua mansa. Genitive, of your table. Tua mansai. Dative, two or four your table. Tua mansai. Accusative, your table. Tua mansa. Vocative, o your table. Tua mansa. Ablative, with, from, or by your table. Tua mansa. So decline. Daenia. Fascia. Ora. Benna. Remark, the a of the ablative of the first declension is always long and sometimes printed a. But in all other cases of words declined, the final a is generally short as karta. Nominative, candelabra, candlesticks, tembla, temples. Notabene. In the vocabularies of this grammar, the quantity of every Latin word will be given, and the paradigms of inflection will show the quantity of the different case terminations. From these data, the student will accent according to the rules of lesson one, page six. Examples of the application of these principles of accentuation are furnished in the phrases of each lesson. Have you? In asking questions, the Romans usually employed certain signs of interrogation, of which the most common are the enclatic ne, always affixed either to the verb or to some other word of the sentence. The particles num, an, equid, numquid, utron, nonne, etc. The enclatic ne and equid can be used in questions of every description, whether the expected answer be affirmative or negative. Num and numquid, only when it is expected to be no. Nonne, only when it is to be yes. An and utron, chiefly in double questions. Yes, sir, I have. Note, the most current Latin adverbs corresponding to our English yes, are, etiam, even, or even so, whereo, indeed. Recte, you are right. Ita, ita est, sigest, it is so. Indeed, or surely, immo, or immo, whereo, yes, yes. But the Romans frequently reply by a simple repetition of the verb or of the emphatic word of the inquiry. Ergo, here, with a simple habio and est. The ceremonious use of a word like our sir was unknown to the ancients. To domine, however, the vocative of dominus, master, or lord, there can be no objection. Have you the hat? Note, the Romans have no article. Its place is in certain cases supplied by a demonstrative pronoun, by unus, one, aleguis, some, one, etc. But ordinarily, the distinctions expressed by our articles must be mentally supplied from the context. The learner will also notice the omission of the pronouns, ero, tu, which the Latin language employs only for the sake of emphasis or contrast. Yes, sir, I have the hat. Si ques domine habio pileo, etiam domine est mihi pileos, b. Observation, the verb habio, being transitive, is followed by the accusative of the object, and the neuter verb est by the nominative. The pen, penna, pennai. The ribbon, or the table, the paper, the hat, pileos, pilei, accusative, or pileon, nominative, and accusative. The sugar, saccharon, sacchari, nominative, and accusative. The salt, sal, salis, accusative, salin, si, observation. Words of the neuter gender have the nominative, accusative, and vocative, singular, and plural, always alike. Mai, nominative, masculine, meos, feminine, mea, neuter, meon. Accusative, masculine, meon, feminine, mea, neuter, meon. Thy, or your, nominative, masculine, tuus, feminine, tua, neuter, tuum. Accusative, masculine, tuum, feminine, tuam, neuter, tuum. Di, rule. Adjectives and adjective pronouns agree with their substantives in gender, number, and case. Thus, my sugar, meon, saccharon, nominative, and accusative. My hat, nominative, pileos, meos, masculine, or pileon, meon, neuter, accusative, pileon, meon, or meon, pileon, my pen. Nominative, mea, benna, or benna, mea. Accusative, mea, bennam, or bennam, meam. Your salt, nominative, sal, tuum, or masculine, sal, tuus. Accusative, sal, tuum, or tuum, sal. Have you my hat? Yes, sir. I have your hat. Have you my ribbon? I have your ribbon. Have you the pen? I have the pen. Have you bennam? Exercise one. Have you the table? Yes, sir. I have the table. Have you my table? I have your table. Have you your pen? I have my pen. Have you the sugar? I have the sugar. Have you my sugar? I have your sugar. Have you the paper? I have the paper. Have you your paper? I have my paper. Have you the salt? I have the salt. Have you my salt? I have your salt. Lesson three. Of the second declension. A. The second declension comprises all substantives and adjectives which form their genitive in I. The terminations of the nominative are us, generally masculine, sometimes feminine, er, ir, masculine, and um, neuter. Note. To these must be added one adjective in ur. Satur. Satura. Saturu, meaning sated or satisfied. Examples. Meus dominus, masculine, my master, nominative, my master, meus dominus, genitive, of my master, mei, dominii, dative, to my master, meo domino, accusative, my master, meo domino, vocative, oh my master, mii domine, ablative, with my master, meo domino, note on the vocative. This vocative is sometimes meus, and sometimes me, after the analogy of proper names in Ius, which have always ii, as in virgilius, virgili, horatius, horati, so also filius, fili, genius, genii, libertus, masculine, your book, nominative, your book, libertus, genitive, of your book, libritui, dative, to your book, librotuo, accusative, your book, librotuom, vocative, oh your book, libertue, ablative, with your book, librotuo, saccharumpono, neuter, good sugar, nominative, the good sugar, saccharumpono, genitive, of the good sugar, sacchariponi, dative, to the good sugar, accusative, the good sugar, saccharumpono, vocative, oh good sugar, saccharumpono, ablative, with the good sugar, saccharumpono, like dominus, decline, pilius, pannus, equus, calceus, and all nouns and adjectives of this declension which end in us, after the manner of liber, decline, ager, pulter, faber, magister, etc., like saccharum, all neuters in um, as in aurum, corium, lingno, plumbum, etc. note, some nouns and adjectives in er retain the e in the genitive and have eti instead of ri, as in genet, geneti, of son-in-law, buer, bueri, a boy, liber, liberi, free, etc. wir, a man, has wiri, and so its compounds as de ken wir, de ken wiri. Remark one, the final i of the genitive of this declension and of Latin words generally is long, except in mihi, di-bi, si-bi, where it is common, i. Two, the final o of the dative and ablative singular of this declension is always long, but in Latin words generally it is common as sermo, amo, habeo. Which of many? Nominative masculine, quii or quice. Feminine, guai, neuter, gold or quid. Accusative, masculine, quam, feminine, quam. Neuter, gold or quid. Which of two? Nominative masculine, uter, feminine, utra, neuter, utrum. Accusative, masculine, utrum. Feminine, utram, neuter, utrum, good. Nominative, masculine, bonus, feminine, bolna, neuter, bono. Accusative, masculine, bono, feminine, bonam, neuter, bono. Great, large or big. Nominative, masculine, magnus, feminine, magna, neuter, magnum. Accusative, masculine, magnum, feminine, magnum, neuter, magnum, bad. Nominative, masculine, malus, feminine, mala, neuter, malum. Accusative, masculine, malum. Feminine, malam, neuter, malum, bad, as in worthless. Nominative, masculine, wheelies, feminine, wheelies, neuter, wheelie, accusative, masculine, wheelam, feminine, wheelam, neuter, wheelie, or nequam, indeclinable. Note, malus is said of persons and is morally bad. Wheelies, chiefly of things worthless, nequam of persons and things both. Beautiful or fine. Nominative, masculine, pulker, feminine, pulkra, neuter, pulkrum, accusative, masculine, pulkrum, feminine, pulkram, neuter, pulkrum. Also, nominative, masculine, formosus, feminine, formosa, neuter, formosum, accusative, masculine, formosum, feminine, formosa, neuter, formosum, ugly. Nominative, masculine, turpis, feminine, turpis, neuter, turpe, accusative, masculine, turpe, feminine, turpe, neuter, turpe, my good sugar, sacharum, meum bonum, nominative and accusative, your bad sugar, sacharum, tuum, wheelie, or sacharum, tuum, nequam, the fine table, nominative, mensa pulkra, accusative, mensa pulkram, the fine paper, nominative, karta pulkra, accusative, karta pulkram, the fine ribbon, nominative, dainia pulkra, accusative, dainium pulkram, the ugly hat, nominative, pelios turpis, accusative, pelion turpin, the ugly book, nominative, liber turpis, accusative, libru turpin, the ugly salt, nominative, sa turpis, accusative, sale turpin, which hat, which paper, nominative, qui spelios, quai karta, accusative, quain pelion, quain karta, which sugar, called sacharum, nominative and accusative, qui tsakhari, nominative and accusative, b, observation, the interrogative, quote, is always used adjectively, and agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case. Quid is more like the English what, and is either used independently or has its noun in the genitive. The masculine, which, is more commonly qui, than quiis, when a substantive is expressed with it. Have you good sugar? Yes sir, I have good sugar. Sa ne domine, est mihi sacharum bonu. Have you the fine ribbon? I have the fine ribbon. Which hat have you? Qui estibi pilios, quain pelion khabeis? I have my ugly hat. Which ribbon have you? I have your fine ribbon. Exercise two, have you the fine hat? Yes sir, I have the fine hat. Have you my bad hat? I have your bad hat. Have you the bad salt? I have the bad salt. Have you your good salt? I have my good salt. Which salt have you? I have your good salt. Which sugar have you? I have my good sugar. Have you my good sugar? I have your good sugar. Which table have you? I have the fine table. Have you my fine table? I have your fine table. Which paper have you? I have the bad paper. Have you my ugly paper? I have your ugly paper. Which bad hat have you? I have my bad hat. Which fine ribbon have you? I have your fine ribbon. Have you my fine pen? I have your fine pen. Lesson four, banzoom quarton, of the third declension. A. Substantives and adjectives of the third declension have their genitive in is. The terminations of the nominative are numerous, some ending in one of the vowels a, e, i, o, i, and others in one of the consonants k, d, l, n, r, s, t, x. This declension comprises nouns of every gender. Nouns ending in a, e, i, i, k, l, and t are neuter. Nouns in o, or, os, and ios are generally masculine, but sometimes of other genders. Those in us, aus, es, is, is, bs, ns, and ps are generally feminine, sometimes masculine. Those in r and n are masculine and neuter. Lapis, masculine, a stone. Nominative, a stone. Lapis, genitive, of a stone. Lapidis, dative, to a stone. Lapidi, accusative, a stone. Lapidam, vocative, o stone. Lapis, ablative, with a stone. Lapide. Vistis, feminine, a garment. Nominative, the garment. Vistis, genitive, of the garment. Vistis, dative, to the garment. Vistii, accusative, the garment. Vistam, vocative, o the garment. Vistis, ablative, with the garment. Viste, canis, masculine, and feminine, the dog. Nominative, the dog. Canis, genitive, of the dog. Canis, dative, to the dog. Cani, accusative, the dog. Canem, vocative, o dog. Canis, ablative, with the dog. Cane, note. Nouns which are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine according to the context are said to be of the common gender. So, Adolescans and Euenis, masculine and feminine, a young man or woman. Conyux, masculine and feminine, a husband or a wife. Infants, masculine and feminine, an infant, and a number of others. Nouns of which the gender is unsettled are said to be of the doubtful gender, as in Diaz, masculine and feminine, a day. Penus, masculine and feminine, and neuter. Provisions, di biaile neuter, the stocking. Nominative, the stocking, di biaile, genitive, of the stocking. Di biailes, dative, to the stocking, di biaile. Accusative, the stocking, di biaile, vocative, o stocking, di biaile. Ablative, with the stocking, di biaile, Sartor, masculine, the tailor. Nominative, the tailor, Sartor, genitive, of the tailor, Sartoris, dative, to the tailor, Sartori, accusative, the tailor, Sartore, vocative, o tailor, Sartor, ablative, with the tailor, Sartore, kaput, neuter, the head. Nominative, the head, kaput, genitive, of the head, kapitis, dative, to the head, kapiti, accusative, the head, kaput, vocative, o the head, kaput, ablative, with the head, kapite, frater, masculine, the brother. Nominative, the brother, frater, genitive, of the brother, fratris, dative, to the brother, fratri, accusative, the brother, fratrem, vocative, o brother, frater, ablative, with the brother, fratre, sal, masculine, and neuter, the salt. Nominative, the salt, sal, genitive, of the salt, salis, dative, to the salt, salii, accusative, the salt, salem, or sal, vocative, o salt, sal, ablative, with the salt, sale, or salii. Remark, the final e of the ablative of the third declension is always short in the final e long. It. Nominative, masculine, is feminine, ea, neuter, id, accusative, masculine, aon, feminine, am, neuter, id, be, observation, the pronoun is, ea, id, must be put in the same case in gender as the substantive for which it stands. Not or no, non, non, well, oh, minime, I have not, non, have, oh, no, sir, non, well, oh, domine, minime, well, oh, domine, have you the table, habes, ne, men, san, no, sir, I have it not, minime, domine, non, have, oh, minime, domine, ea, non, have, oh, non, have, oh, domine, non, have you the hat, an, habes, pili, oh, no, sir, I have it not, minime, domine, non, have, oh, minime, domine, ea, non, have, oh, have you the sugar, nom, habes, sa, khar, oh, I have it not, non, have, oh, d, observation, the English idiom requires here id, non, have, oh, in Latin, however, the pronoun is, ea, or id, is frequently omitted, when it would have to stand in the same case as the noun to which it relates. The coat, tora, torei, the cloth, panos, pani, the horse, ecus, equi, the shoe, calqueus, calquei, the thread, filo, fili, the candlestick, candelabro, candelabri, the wood, ligno, ligny, the leather, corrion, cori, the lead, plumbum, plumbi, the gold, auron, aurii, of, ea, or x, i, observation, the preposition ea, or x, is followed by the ablative, ea can be put before consonants only, x, before vowels and consonants both, of gold, xauro, aurius, auria, aurium, of cloth, e pano, eff, observation, the material of which anything is made may either be expressed by the ablative of a substantive with ea or x, or by means of an adjective in eus, thus, wooden or of wood, lingneus, lingnea, lingneu, paper or of paper, cartagius, cartagia, cartagio, leather or of leather, scortius, scortia, scortium, or e corio, leadin, or of lead, plumbios, plumbia, plumbium, or e plumboo, linen, or of linen, lingteus, lingtea, lingteum, stone or of stone, lapidios, lapidia, lapidium, or saxius, saxia, saxium, pretty, bellus, bella, bellum, or venustus, venusta, venustum, the paper hat, nominative, pilius, cartagius, accusative, pilium, cartagio, the wooden table, nominative, mensa lingnea, accusative, mensa lingnea, the linen stocking, nominative and accusative, the golden candlestick, nominative and accusative, candelabrum aureum, or candelabrum x auro, the horse of stone, nominative, ecus lapidios, accusative, ecus lapidion, the golden ribbon, nominative, tainia aurea, accusative, tainia malreum, the cloth coat, nominative, toga e panno, accusative, toga e panno, have you the paper hat? No, sir, I have it not. Have you the stone table? I have it not. Of the genitive of the third declension. G. From the paradigms of this lesson, it will be perceived that substantives of this declension vary considerably as to the manner in which they assume the characteristic termination of the genitive. The following rules are intended to give the learner some insight into the extent of this variation. Note, these rules, though not directly connected with the exercises of this lesson, are yet recommended to the careful attention of the student. 1. Nouns in a change a into atis, as poema, poematis, neuter, a poem. 2. Nouns in e change e into is, as cubile, cubilis, neuter, a couch. 3. Those in i are generally indeclinable, but sometimes have itos, as in hidromeli, hidromelitos, neuter, mead. 4. Those in i add os, as misi, misios, neuter, vitriol. 5. O commonly becomes onis, as sermo, sermonis, masculine, speech. But do and go become dinis and guinis, as grando, grandinis, feminine, hail, origo, orignis, feminine, origin. Note, a number of other nouns in o have likewise inis, as homo, a man, nemo, nobody, apollo, etc. Caro, flesh, feminine, has carnis, and anio, the name of a river, anienis. 6. Nouns in k, d, l, n, simply add is, as halek, halekis, neuter, and feminine, a sort of pickle, david, davidis, masculine, a man's name, kubital, kubitalis, neuter, a cushion, ren, renis, masculine, the reins. Note, but lak, neuter, milk, has laktis, and those in men have minis, as numen, numinis, neuter, the deity. Greek nouns in on have onis and ontis, as igon, igonis, feminine, an image. Acheron, acherontis, masculine, name of a river. 7. Those in ar, er, or, and ur, commonly add likewise is, as nektar, nektaris, neuter, nectar, anser, anseris, masculine, agus, lektor, lectoris, masculine, a reader, sulpur, sulpuris, neuter, sulpur. 8. Those in as generally change as into adis, as weritas, weritatis, feminine, truth. 9. The only nouns in ice are, ice, neuter, brass, and preis, masculine, bondsman, which have adis and praides. 10. Nouns in aus have audis, as laus, laudis, feminine, praise, fraus, fraudis, feminine, fraud. 11. Those in es generally change es into is, as thames, thames, feminine, hunger, rupes, rubis, feminine, a rock. But sometimes into adis, itis, or, adis, as, kairis, kairidis, masculine, an air. Miles, militis, masculine, a soldier. Keres, keridis, feminine, the goddess, series. 12. Nouns in is have commonly is, as apis, is, feminine, a bee, obis, is, feminine, a sheep. But sometimes also, adis, inis, itis, or itis, as pulvis, pulveris, masculine, dust, sanguis, sanguinis, masculine, blood, lapis, lapidis, masculine, a stone. Kiritis, kiritis, masculine, a Roman. Cemis, masculine, one half has cemisis. 13. Those in aus change into autis, as sacerdos, sacerdotis, masculine, a priest. Nepos, nepotis, masculine, a grandson. But also into odis, oris, and oris, as custos, custodis, masculine, a keeper. Heros, herovis, masculine, a hero. Ros, rooris, masculine, dew. 14. Determination aus becomes odis, eris, udis, udis, udis, or odis, as corpus, corpuris, neuter, a body. Opus, operis, neuter, a work. Ros, crooris, neuter, the leg. Inkus, ingudis, feminine, an anvil. Salus, saludis, feminine, safety. Tribus, tribodis, masculine, a tripod. 15. Greek nouns in eos have eos as orpeos, orpeos, etc. 16. Nouns in es, ns, and ers change s into dies or dies, as puls, pultis, feminine, a sort of pap. Pars, partis, feminine, a part. Glants, glandis, feminine, any kernel fruit. Serpents, serpantis, feminine, a serpent. 17. Those in bs, ps, and ms have bis, pis, and mis, as urbis, urbis, feminine, a city. Stirps, stirpis, masculine, and feminine, offspring. Giams, hyamis, feminine, winter. Note, but the adjective chylibs, single, has chylibis, and the compounds of kips have ipis, as pringeps, pringibis, the foremost. The genitive of angips, doubtful, is angipitis. 18. The only nouns in t are kaput, kapitis, masculine, the head, and its compounds, okiput, okipitis, etc. 19. Nouns in ex, change this letter into kis or gis, as woks, wokis, feminine, the voice, kaliks, kalikis, masculine, a cup, rex, reagis, masculine, a king, kodex, kodikis, masculine, a bok. But niks, feminine, snow, has nibis, nox, feminine, night, noktis. Xenix, adjective, old, senis, or senikis, and supelex, feminine, furniture, supelex dilis. Exercise three. Have you the wooden table? No, sir, I have it not. Which table have you? I have the stone table. Have you my golden candlestick? I have it not. Which stocking have you? I have the thread stocking. Have you my thread stocking? I have not your thread stocking. Which coat have you? I have my cloth coat. Which horse have you? I have the wooden horse. Have you my leathern shoe? I have it not. Have you the leaden horse? I have it not. Have you your good wooden horse? I have it not. Which wood have you? I have your good wood. Have you my good gold? I have it not. Which gold have you? I have the good gold. Which stone have you? I have your fine stone. Which ribbon have you? I have your golden ribbon. Have you my fine dog? I have it. Have you my ugly horse? I have it not. End of lessons two through four from a practical grammar of the Latin language by George J. Adler. Recorded by J. R. Omehen. Egyptian self-taught Arabic by Captain C. A. Thim. The grammar of Arabic. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Nadia. The grammar of Arabic. Remarks. Arabic is a very rich language with numerous synonyms. So much so that it has been described by a WAG as a language in which every word has its own meaning and exactly the opposite and a third meaning of some kind of camel. Fortunately for the common needs of life Arabic-speaking people are content with an ordinary vocabulary and even the educated reserve the richness of their mother tongue for special occasions. The appealing 13 forms of the verb of grammarians dwindle in practice to the intransitive, transitive and an impersonal form with occasionally a passive form and prepositions are considered sufficient without the inflection of the various cases. Again the student has the building up of a vocabulary made more easy for him by fairly consistent changes which are made in the roots to express various ideas. The verb. The root form is that of the third person singular of the past tense of the verb. From this is formed most regularly a word which means the place or time of performing the action indicated by the root form. Thus kattaba he wrote makes maktab the place of writing meaning the office. Khazana he treasured up makes mahzen the place of storing. Hence our magazine sama he fasted makes mausim the time of fasting hence our word mausum. Rekaba he wrote makes merkib a ship. Sharaba he drank makes mashrab the drinking place used in the form of mashrabaya the lattice work round native windows. Shorba properly shorbat drink English sherbet is another derivative from this root. Note it is interesting to note the number of Arabic words that have been imported into the English language besides the above and the well-known forms generally beginning with L or L alchemy almanac alembic elixir algebra the last from an Arab mathematician with the appellation of el gabbar the giant. Thus many less distinctive words are found such as admiral arsenal to drop to booze ghoul zany pop and j bug not indigenous to england. The introduction of these into our language is probably due to the crusaders the soldiers of later days are responsible for a great many Hindustani words in current use in our colloquial language such as to crab military term from Arabic roots haraba club punch club punch bobbery so long and numerous others end of note the past participle of a verb is also regularly formed and can be used like an adjective thus from ketaba he wrote maktub written from shaghala he worked majghoul busy from fatha he opened mafduh opened from fahima he understood mafhum understood the intransitive verb is made transitive by doubling the medial letter thus thus shaghala he worked shaghala he made to work the impersonal form is constantly used as it is in french and is formed by prefixing the sound of yet it fata it is opened compare in french it is washed auxiliary verbs one is not troubled in egyptian with many moods and tenses one tense the present serves also for the future the past tense is uniformly constructed from the roots and the auxiliary verbs to have and to be are represented by one form of auxiliary which is here given and is typical of the inflections of all verbs present or future i will be or become you and see and see. Post. Ana cont, I was or became. Ahna konna, we and see. Enta cont. Entom conto, who I can. Humma canu. There is no verb corresponding to I am. It is omitted. Thus, ana mapsout, I am contented. Howa faqir, he is poor. I have and see is formed with a preposition and near, and the personal pronouns as. Andi, I have. Andina, we have. Andak, thou hast. Andokum, you have. Andu, he has. Andohum, they have. I had is kan andi. There was near me, and similarly for the other persons. General formation of tenses. An ordinary verb, ketaba, he wrote, is here given, and all the verbs are formed similarly. Katab, he wrote. Katib, writing. Maktub, written. Present or future. Ana aktib, I write or will write. Ahna niktib. Enta tiktib. Entom tiktibu. Howa yaktib. Homma yaktibu. Past. Ana ketabt, I wrote. Ahna ketabna. Enta ketabt. Entom ketabtu. Howa ketab. Homma ketabu. Imperfect. Ana kont aktib, I was writing. Ahna konna niktib. Enta kont tiktib. Entom kontu tiktibu. Howa kan yaktib. Homma kanu yaktibu. Plu perfect. Ana kont ketabt, I had written. Ahna konna ketabna. Enta kont ketabt. Entom kontu ketabtu. Howa kan ketab. Homma kanu ketabu. Nearly all imperatives are formed uniformly as iktib, write. Imsek, take, hold off. Imshi, walk, or go. Iftah, open. From mesek, meshi, fetah. A form to express present action, to distinguish the present from the future, is often used. The present being given the prefix be. Thus, ana bektib, I am writing. Now, enta betiktib, hoa beyiktib, and see. The verbs call for no further remark beyond the fact that there is a feminine form of a third person singular, present and past tense. Thus, she writes heya tiktib instead of yaktib. She wrote heya katabit instead of katab. Similarly, she was kanit instead of kan. Collective nouns also take this feminine singular form as al-gimal ta'kul, the camel's eat. The pronoun, except when governing the verb or as the subject to the sentence. The forms of personal pronouns, ana, enta, hoa, and see, are not used. But another form, as in, andi, I have, ko to the bov. Similarly, tahti, under me, genbi, by my side. To express possession, the word betaya, belonging to, is used. Thus, betay mine, betaak thayn, betay his, betana ours, betakum yours, betahum theirs. But unless it is intended to lay stress on the possessive, this word is generally replaced by the suffix. Thus, melki, my property, wishak, your face, reglo, his leg, and see. The dative form of the personal pronoun is made with the prefix l. li, to me, lek, to thee, lu, lo, to him. The dative form of the personal pronoun is made with the prefix l. li, to me, lek, to thee, lu, to him, lena, to us, lokum, to you, lohum, to them. Formation of plurals. The regular form of plural is made by the addition of in, to masculine words, and at, to feminine. The feminine word generally ends in te marbuta, c, page 10, and is transcribed as ah, when it's a simple noun, and yeh, when a derivative noun. It therefore causes little difficulty in being feminine in accordance with previously conceived ideas on the subject. One is not troubled with unreasonable genders. As a set off to this, the plurals of nouns disport themselves under so many guises that the above rule of adding in and at is chiefly of use in the formation of the plurals of adjectives and of feminine derivative nouns. The plurals of nouns note and of some adjectives end of note. Ring the following kinds of changes, and each must be learned as an exception. For instance, singular, plural, singular, plural, shabak, a window, shababik, gabal, a mountain, gibael, marqib, a ship, marqib, bet, a house, biyout, futa, a towel, fout, heita, a wall, heitan, walad, a boy, awlad, hakeem, a doctor, hoqama. The dual form is obtained by adding in, thus, ragil, haman, raglain, tayyibin, two good men. The definite article. The definite article, el, the, is repeated with a qualifying adjective. Thus, el geish, el kibir, the large army. It has no feminine or plural form. Before certain letters, el suffers a legion and duplicates the initial letter of the following word. Thus, in nar, the fire, is shams, the sun, the negative. The negative is peculiar. Not is mush, compounded of meh, not, and she, a thing, and can be separated like n'pah in French. Thus, I know is ana arif. I don't know ana ma'arafsh, or manish a'arif, or simply mush a'arif. The adjective, comparative and superlative. The forms are regular and as follows. Hassan, good, beautiful. Ahsan, better. El ahsan, the best. Shater, clever. Ashtar, cleverer. El ashtar, the cleverest. Keteer, many, or much. Aktar, more. El aktar, most. Classical el exeer, hence el exeer. Kibir, great, akbar, greater. El akbar, greatest. For example, Allahu akbar. God is the greatest. Genders. The feminine of adjectives is formed by adding the letter he. Thus, the feminine form of the above words becomes hasana, shatra, ketira, and si. The adjectives of color are peculiar, for example, abyad, white, feminine, beida. Ahmar, red, feminine, hamra, hence, alhambra. A list of these is given on page 34. Polite diction. It is not impolite, as in most European languages, to use the second person singular. But it is usual in speaking two equals to use the word hadritak, presence. Thus, instead of inta, thou, and hoa, he, one says politely, hadritak, hadritu. It is not necessary when the expression used is in itself polite, as min fadlak, please. Kattar khirek, thank you. Allah yahfazak, God keep you. Naharak saeed, good morning. Liltak saeeda, good evening. If the person addressed is of much higher rank, the word saattak or saaditkum should be used and pronounced saattak saaditkum. It is well to be familiar with the expressions by which God is invoked. Thus, Allah is often used during a pose and conversation. Bismillah in the name of God on starting work or a journey. Inshallah, please God, used constantly for perhaps. Mashallah, an expression of surprise or admiration. In the later case, with the intention of avoiding the evil eye. Yalla, by God, used always for go on, let us proceed and see. On entering a room or house, one is addressed with the words marhabah, welcome, or more cordially with ahlan wa sahlan, make yourself at home. As a rule, the expression assalamu alaykum, peace be upon you, is reserved by muhammadans, for muhammadans. But if used to a Christian or other, should be answered by alaykum salam, on you be peace. Politeness requires that, on all occasions, of making an offer of a seed, cigarette, coffee, and see the words, it faddal, be gracious, must be used as a promenary. Note, walla, is a form of oath for, by God, end of note, end of recording.