 Lecture 35, As-Salaam-Alaikum. Welcome to the virtual university's course on business and technical communication. In today's lecture, we are going to start reviewing the language used in your business and technical communication. We are going to start with the paragraph. In this lecture, you are going to learn about paragraph unity. And within that, we will look specifically at topic sentences and how they can be used to achieve unity in a paragraph. We will also look at paragraph coherence, which will include the use of transitional devices, specifically transitional words and phrases, and common transitional words and phrases that are used to gain transition. We will also look at linking pronouns, which are another device that help with paragraph coherence, and we will look at the repetition of key words to gain coherence within a paragraph. Following that, we will look at paragraph development. Paragraph development can be achieved through a variety of ways. We can use different patterns like exemplification, narration, process, description, comparison and contrast, the use of analogy, cause and effect, classification and division, definition, analysis and enumeration to develop the paragraphs in our writing. So let's start with paragraph unity. What exactly do we mean when we talk of unity? We unify paragraphs by making every sentence contribute to a controlling idea, which is usually stated in a topic sentence. When we talk about paragraph unity, it means that all the ideas in the paragraph relate to the topic sentence. In the following paragraph, which is part of a discussion of recent advances in optical astronomy. Now the topic sentence, as you just saw in this preceding example as well, the second sentence was the topic sentence and every subsequent sentence was supporting the main idea in the topic sentence. Now there are some things to remember when you are formulating a topic sentence. You need to remember that the central idea of the paragraph should be stated in the topic sentence. The other sentences should elaborate on the topic sentence with relevant information and evidence. While you will keep your main idea in the topic sentence of the paragraph, the rest of the sentences will elaborate on the main idea in some way or give information or give evidence about it. Also, topic sentences are a key element in developing unified and coherent paragraphs. And unless your topic sentences are effective and focused, your paragraphs will not be unified and coherent. Although the topic sentence may appear anywhere in the paragraph, there is no set rule for where the topic sentence appears in a paragraph. It is most often the first sentence of a paragraph. There are times when it is the second sentence, there are times when it appears elsewhere also, but the most common location of a topic sentence is the first sentence. A topic statement may also contain a transitional element from the previous paragraph. In the first paragraph of the next example, the topic sentence is the first sentence and it states the subject. However, there are times when the paragraph can lead to a topic sentence. As it is also possible that the topic sentence is not the first sentence, first the entire paragraph comes and then the topic sentence comes. And when a topic sentence concludes a paragraph like this, it receives extra emphasis and can also serve as a summary or conclusion. As you can see in this example, the first sentence on your screen is the topic sentence. And it says time became a key word in the language of physics during the 17th century. And then the following sentences give support to this statement. In this paragraph that you see on the screen now, the topic sentence is the last sentence of this paragraph. The whole paragraph is leading towards the topic sentence which is time-led and independent existence separate from nature itself. And this sentence then is the conclusion of the paragraph also and leads up to whatever will come next subsequently. But basically it is concluding all that has been said, it is summarizing all that has been said in the paragraph. So, these are two different places where the topic sentence can occur. It is most commonly found in the first sentence or sometimes the second sentence, but it may also be found in the last sentence of a paragraph. Now, paragraph coherence is more than simply laying down the facts. A coherent paragraph organizes facts properly, creating a logical argument that makes sense from idea to idea. Coherent paragraphs have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Elements that contribute to coherence such as transitional devices, linking pronouns, and repetition of key words will lead to a logical conclusion. So, these are two different places where the first part of the paragraph is written and the second part of the paragraph is written and the second part of the paragraph is written and the third part of the paragraph is written and the third part of the paragraph is written and will be discussed in the following section of today's lecture. Let us have a look at a weak paragraph. In this paragraph, there is very weak coherence. The ideas do not link together properly. The improved version, as you can see, makes for much better reading. There are transitional elements present which are adding to the coherence of the paragraph. The use of the word in a phrase, in fact, is actually showing that you are elaborating on something and by saying the problem has grown in the last 20 years, you are actually emphasizing that there was a problem which has been talked about in the first sentence. As you have seen, in the first sentence, a problem was told that limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. And then in the next sentence, it was rephrased that this is really a problem and it has grown in the last 20 years. And then the writer used the word because. Now, this word because shows that he is going to talk about the reasons, the causes of this problem. So, as you can see, this adds to coherence. Each separate fact flows into the next, creating a coherent whole. The use of transitional devices as verbal bridges to link one idea to the next creates coherence within a paragraph. Transitions are crucial to paragraph coherence. They make a difference between abrupt, choppy sentences and seamless prose. They make them much more effective. They make them flow much better. You will use transitional devices and words to clarify and smooth the movement from idea to idea. Let's have a look at an example where you can see how transitional words and phrases can be used effectively. This is a weak version that you are seeing on your screen right now. There are very few, there are hardly any. In fact, there are no transitional devices and as you can see, the ideas do not link together very well. However, in this improved version, the writer has used words like for example, moreover and therefore, to create connections between the ideas and to show what is coming next, whether they are giving some kind of an example or they are giving additional information or they are showing the effect of something. The following list that we will look at now, it is characterized by type of relationship and it provides examples of some common and useful transitional words and phrases. Cause and effect relationships can be shown by the use of such transitional words like consequently, therefore, accordingly as a result because for this reason, hence thus. A sequence can be shown by the use of words and phrases like furthermore, in addition, moreover, first, second, third, finally, again also and besides further in the first place, last, likewise next, then too. Comparison or contrast can be shown by the use of words and phrases like similarly also in the same way likewise although at the same time but conversely even so however, in contrast nevertheless, nonetheless notwithstanding on the contrary otherwise still yet. Examples can be shown by using words like for example, for instance, in fact, indeed of course, specifically that is to illustrate. You can show that you are talking about purpose by using phrases like for this purpose, for this reason, to this end with this object. You can also talk about time and location and transitional devices used for time and location would include nearby, above, adjacent to, below, beyond, farther on, here, opposite to, there, to the south, to the north, to the east, to the west, whatever before, after, later, afterwards, immediately in the meantime, meanwhile, now, since, soon, then and while. So, as you can see this is a very effective list and if you use, keep this list as a reference to guide you to use transitional devices wherever you feel that there are jumps between your ideas, you will be very effective in creating good coherent paragraphs. Now, another thing that adds to paragraph coherence is linking pronouns. The use of linking pronouns, pronouns like it's, your, there and so on, when referring to other nouns and pronouns actually adds to the coherence of your paragraphs. We use pronouns to refer to people, places, things and we use linking pronouns to refer to other nouns or other pronouns. Linking pronouns connect your sentences and help to keep your subject in focus. Let's have a look at a paragraph where linking pronouns are not used very effectively. It says in 1912, the German chemist von Lowe hypothesized that in a crystal X-ray, scattering patterns are related to atom spacing. A series of experiments demonstrated the wave nature of X-rays and the periodic arrangement of atoms. Spots on a photographic plate provided the proof for the hypothesis. Now, let's see how the same text is improved by using linking pronouns. In 1912, the German chemist von Lowe hypothesized that in a crystal X-ray, scattering patterns are related to atom spacing. His series of experiments demonstrated the wave nature of X-rays and the periodic arrangement of atoms. Spots on a photographic plate provided the proof for his hypothesis. Now, here you can see how the link is made with the experiments of this chemist. You will also repeat keywords to emphasize your main points. However, you need to use this technique sparingly because too much repetition leads to monotony. Now, keep in mind that if you are repeating for coherence, then don't repeat too much because if you repeat a few words repeatedly, it will look very monotonous. However, repetition affects coherence and improves coherence. However, a lot of repetition makes a paragraph monotonous. Let's have a look at an example to elaborate this point. This broadcast packet switching should be distinguished from the store and forward variety. To handle the demands of growth, our system can be extended using repeaters for signal regeneration, filters for traffic localization, or gateways for internet work address extension. Now, this text is made better so that some words, specifically packet words are repeated. Let's see how this broadcast packet switch should be distinguished from the store and forward variety. To handle the demands of growth, our system can be extended using packet repeaters for signal regeneration, packet filters for traffic localization, or packet gateways for internet work address extension. The main point packets is now highlighted. Now, this was a paragraph coherence. How we use linking devices, repetition of words, linking pronouns, transitional devices, etc. to create coherence amongst paragraphs. Now, let's have a look at how we develop the paragraphs. You will develop your paragraphs with a variety of patterns that reflect your thinking about the material that you are using. As you write the topic sentence and its supporting sentences, look for ways to structure your argument and structure your thinking. Jyobhi aapki thinking hai, jyobhi aapne points likne hai, aapne topic sentence se related, jyobhi supporting sentences likne, unko aapne kis structure mein likna hai. One author may advance his or her material by narrating a series of event. Another author may undertake physical description. Another author may undertake an analysis of the topic. Ek hi topic ko different log, different tarahan se expand kar sakte hai. Narration ke saath, physical description deke, koi cheezin analyze karke. Aapne bhi yeh sohsna honka ki jo aap ke pas material hai aap usko kis tarahan se develop kar sakte hai. We are going to have a look at some different patterns of paragraph development to give you an idea. Let's have a look first at exemplification. You will use exemplification paragraphs to provide instances that clarify your topic sentence or topic statement. Exemplification ka matlab ke aap examples deke baat karenge, jyobhi aapne apne topic sentence me baat ki hai uske baare mein aap koi examples, koi instances batayange. In the following paragraph, the topic sentence is supported in examples that illustrate, support and clarify the main point. Vitamins and minerals can be added to enrich in brackets. Replace nutrients lost in processing of fortify, brackets add nutrients not normally present, foods to improve their nutritional quality. Ye to ho gya aap ka topic sentence is me baataaya jaara hai ke vitamins or minerals, kis cheez ke liye kane mein add ke jaate hai. Aap dekhte hai kis cheez ko kis tarahan develop kiya gaya hai. Breads and cereals are usually enriched with some B vitamins and iron. Common examples of fortification include the addition of vitamin D to milk, vitamin A to margarine, vitamin C to fruit drinks, calcium to orange juice and iodide to table salt. Jaise ke aap main dekhaap iss example mein topic sentence ek tha aur pe jo baaki sentences thay wo us topic sentence se related examples dere thay aur us own examples ke through us topic sentence ki detail bhi milge aur us topic sentence ko develop bhi kiya gaya. To ye exemplification ke laati hai. Now another way of developing a paragraph could be through narration. You will use narration to establish a series of events that tells the reader what happened. Narration follows a chronological pattern of development. Iska matlab hi hai ki narration jo hai wo chronological pattern istamaal karte hi hai. Yaani jo cheez jistara hui pehle ek cheez hui, phe dosri hui, phe arse agli, phe arse agli, wo us hi order mein cheezon ko bataya jaata hai. Narration is a convincing mode of paragraph development to the extent that it tells a coherent story and narration is often used when you are telling the story or when you are describing how an event happened or what happened first what happened next etc. It follows a timeline and it is usually very easy to understand because things are in a chronology because things are being talked about in the same order as they happened it is easy to understand what happened and what happened first what happened afterwards. In the following narrative the paragraph is followed by two descriptive paragraphs. Note the use of transitional words such as thereafter, first, next and after. These type of words are typical transitional devices used in a narration paragraph. Jaise ke aap dekh rahe hain is paragraph mein first, next etc. istamaal kye gaye hain after this process is written with all these things what happened first, what happened later and this is a narrative paragraph. The paragraph you are seeing is a descriptive paragraph and it is related to the narration but when the first paragraph was a narrative, the next paragraph is also descriptive. You can see that it is not necessary that all the paragraphs follow one pattern different paragraphs have different purposes and according to that you develop it. You can also give a description of the process in paragraphs to develop sequences that describe how an action is carried out or how something works. When you are talking about how of something then you are actually describing a process. When you are talking about how something works then you are explaining its process so the readers will know how it works. The paragraph that we will see now shows a typical sequential treatment of a general physical phenomenon. Note the concentration of process verbs such as to find, samples, sums and provides. Another type of paragraph that we can use descriptive prose to provide a physical picture or a functional view of the subject. If we want to describe something, we want to explain how it is then we will use the description to develop that paragraph. Physical description develops a picture by identifying the shapes, materials, position and functions of the subject prose often serves as the raw material for more elaborate forms of analytical prose. If you have a descriptive paragraph then on that basis you can write more analysis or more analytical paragraphs. Let us have a look at an example where boundary layer test section is being described. Another way of developing your paragraphs is to use an analogy to explain one object or process in terms of another. When you are explaining something or something else then you will call it an analogy. You need to be very careful that you are actually using analogies properly because the appness of the analogy is generally a point of very subtle judgment. You have to understand that the things that you are matching with each other can be matched or not. Some analogies can be more valid than others. For example, comparing an apple to the space shuttle is not likely to be an effective analogy because in a save and space shuttle there is no connection between them or any kind of analogy can be used. However, explaining the internet by reference to a highway system might be a good analogy because they are both seen to be roads to some kind of information. In the following analogy that you will see, a body infection is compared with an invading army of attack organisms. Similarly, when you are writing something you can develop your paragraph but keep in mind that the analogy that you are using is really something that you are comparing with each other. There is a connection or connection between them which is common. Another way in which you can develop your paragraphs is through the use of cause and effect relationships. You will use cause and effect in paragraphs when you are in a situation or event out of another. When you want to show that something has happened because of something else or you want to show that something has happened because of something else you want to show an effect of something or you want to show an effect of something else then you will develop your paragraph with cause and effect in development that attempts to show how events are influenced by others or how they are caused by others. Basically, they show the linkage of causation. In the following paragraph that you will see the development follows the inductive pattern of reasoning from effects back to causes. In this paragraph it will be shown what are the effects and what are the effects because of something else. What was the cause of global climate change resulting from the accumulation of greenhouse gases. For example, it is likely to have significant health effects both direct and indirect. An average global temperature rise of 3 to 4 degree centigrade predicted for the year 2100 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change trees the number of days in the United States with temperature over 38 degree centigrade with a resulting sharp rise to heat related mortality. Deaths will occur primarily from heat strokes, heart attacks and cerebral strokes. The very young, poor and elderly as well as those with chronic cardiovascular and respiratory diseases are most at risk. During the two week heat wave of July 1993 in the United States, 84 people died in Philadelphia alone as a result of the higher temperatures. As you have seen in this example what are the effects and what is the cause of death or what is the cause of the calamities. Another way of developing your paragraphs would be the use of classification and division. You will use classification and division to develop material by relating parts to holes. You will use classification and division to develop material by relating parts to holes. You will classify things, divide and group them and then you will talk about them. When we talk of classification or processes by grouping them into classes you can classify organisms, mechanisms, processes according to shapes, magnitudes, effects and so on. If you are taking an organism or a mechanism then you can classify it in different classes. You can take different shapes and different effects. You can see the effects of a process and you can classify different effects of a process. In division you develop a topic by breaking it down into smaller parts. In classification you will collect similar things and in division you will divide one thing into pieces. Classification is the tutorial strategy. It is an effective approach for showing the terrain of a subject by elaborating on its essential types. In classification basically you can show the entire scope of a subject by breaking different types and you can see how many categories there are. In the following example the definition ceramics are broken down into types. We can also develop paragraphs by definition. You will develop paragraphs by definition when you want to set working generalizations that will help control the meaning and scope of important terms. When you want to define the important terms or concepts that you are talking about you want to define them and you want to establish a scope. Defining is an effective way of controlling the scope of terms. In the following paragraph an extended definition is used as part of the introduction to a research article. As you can see the development is used as a definition because in introductions you can discuss the scope and the things. The intention in this example is both to establish the terms of the discourse and to establish the importance of the subject. How important it is and why. By exploring the meaning of the term by metals the example creates a shared concept that focuses the discussion that follows. Note the use of other devices such as functional description and enumeration. Another way in which you can develop paragraphs is analysis. Analysis examines a subject by evaluating one of its aspects weighing evidence and possible causal linkages. Analysis evaluates a subject and evaluates an aspect of it. You can discuss the evidence and judge and weigh it and discuss the causes. You can analyze why and what are the reasons. Analysis resembles other forms of paragraph development especially classification and division. The object of analysis however is to get to the center of how something works. We are going to have a look at a paragraph that considers the link between cancer, poverty and stress. It says one possible explanation for these statistics on cancer can be found in the high levels of stress associated with poverty. In this beginning sentence they have told that we will talk about the link. Studies have found that stress can dampen the immune system. The body's first line of defense against cancer and experiments with animals have shown that a stressful environment can enhance the growth of a variety of tumors. The link between poverty, stress and cancer mortality in humans has not been proven. Studies have shown a link between stress and other illnesses. In this analysis they have told us what are the things that can be caused by cancer and what are the links between cancer and stress and poverty. They have also analyzed what are the things that have not been proven and in experiments different studies have shown what are the links. They have analyzed all the things that have been done in the research and explained in this paragraph. Another way is enumeration. You can develop paragraphs by enumeration. By using enumeration in paragraphs you itemize or list a set of topics or a series of some kind. If you are number wise it is not necessary that you have written your number but you discuss different things and discuss different things. Enumeration is a powerful way to establish a series of observations and to emphasize each element. Because you are discussing everything separately if you are talking about different causes or different elements then if you list them one by one it will be an enumerative pattern of paragraph development. In the following paragraph the items are enumerated in a series of itemized recommendations. They have given recommendations and they have itemized the enumerative paragraph. They say have your blood cholesterol measured if you have never had it done. Fingerprint tests at health fairs and other public places are generally fairly accurate especially if they are offered by a hospital or other reputable health group. When you know your number follow these guidelines from the National Cholesterol Education Program. They have given an introduction to the paragraph. It is important to know where to get it done and after that they will tell you what to do next. If your cholesterol is under 200, maintain a healthy lifestyle including eating a low fat diet, getting regular exercise, maintaining a healthy body weight and not smoking and get another test within 5 years. The next item on their list is if the result is of any other type. If your cholesterol is between 200 and 239 have a second test performed and average the results. If that number falls in the same range and if you do have any form of cardiovascular disease, change your diet to improve your cholesterol. In addition eliminate any other risk factors you have and get tested again in about one year. So this is the second thing they did. The first thing they told you is that you get a test and get the result. Now they told you that when you get the result keep in mind what type of result it is, what the patient needs to do. They have given one option if the result is of a specific type and then a second option. Now let's look at the third option. If your cholesterol is 240 or more your physician should order a more detailed cholesterol analysis and therapy based on the results. You should begin a cholesterol-improving diet immediately. As you have seen, they told you about three different types of results and on the basis of the three results they also told you that the list of items that they have listed have a logical order. So if you are using an enumerative pattern then you will write your points in some order. The order they ordered used an increasing amount of cholesterol because the order was more or less. First they talked about less cholesterol and the result was lower, then 200 to 230 and then 240 or more. As per your context and your topic any logical order will list your items in that order. In the next lecture you have learned about paragraph unity. We talked about how topic sentences contribute to unified paragraphs. We have said that topic sentences should be clear and the remaining sentences should be related to topic sentences and only then the paragraphs will be united. We also said that there should be a link in a paragraph and this link can be from one of the transitional devices. We have seen different forms of transitional devices and we have seen a list of transitional words and phrases which I have suggested that you keep it handy when you are writing so that you can use without repeating the same transitional words or devices again and again. We also saw that the use of linking pronouns can add to the coherence of paragraphs and so can the repetition of key words but I also warned you that you should not repeat words too often because if they are repeated too often then it can lead to monotony. Finally we looked at paragraph development and we saw that paragraphs can be developed in a variety of ways. First we will write a topic sentence and then we will write unified sentences related to that topic sentence that we will develop with some pattern and we will develop ideas with some pattern and those ideas were exemplification where we are giving a topic sentence related examples in chronological order describing some events or a series of events or description of a process in which we are telling how something works or we can give a description of something it is not necessary to give a description of a process but we can give a description of a physical thing or we can compare or contrast we clarified that comparison happens when we are talking about similar things and contrast happens when we are highlighting their differences we also saw that paragraphs can be developed through the use of analogy where you are using one example to talk about something else but the warning as far as that was concerned was that whatever two things should have something in common we looked at the example of talking about an apple with reference to a space shuttle and we saw that that was not an effective analogy but the use of the internet and the comparison of the internet with the highway was an effective analogy we also looked at cause and effect paragraph development how we could talk about the causes of something or the effects of something to develop a paragraph then we looked at classification and division classification when we put similar things in categories or division when we take part of one thing and mention those divided things we looked at paragraphs developed through analysis where we were weighing the causes of something and the different analysis of whatever subject that we were talking about and then we also looked at enumerative paragraphs where you list things or you put things in step by step as an itemized list and we talked about the fact that when you are using enumeration you need to be very clear in your mind that the things that you are listing should be listed in a logical order the example we saw was listing things in an increasing amount where you could use any other logic for listing your things as well so today we talked about different forms of paragraph development or unity key in the next session we will review more language if you have any questions please feel free to email the address is englishatvu.edu.pk until next time Allah Hafiz