 As-Salaam-Alaikum. Welcome to virtual university. In today's lesson we will follow the pattern established in the earlier lessons. We will read a text which will help you to comprehend. It will help in your comprehension and after that we will do exercises based on the text you've read. When you read the following text, the text that you can see on your screen, you will come across many words and expressions that are new to you. First try to understand their meaning from the context. Read the passage a number of times. Well, say three times. Read it once, read it again and the second time you will have, the third time you will have no problems. When you read, when you have read the text, the whole text, you can check the words in the dictionary but originally initially you shouldn't. Those words that you find in your text which are given in bold typeface, they are explained in the glossary which accompanies your reading package. Now, the passage is about the history of computers. Let us look at the history of the computers that we know today. The very first calculating device used was the 10 fingers of a man's hands. This in fact is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens. Then the abacus was invented, a bead frame in which the beads are moved from left to right. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th century and it is still being used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read. During the 17th and 18th centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. Jane Napier, a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing which is how the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier's ideas to produce logarithm tables which all mathematicians use today. Calculus, another branch of mathematics was independently invented by both Sir Isaac Newton and Englishman and labnets a German mathematician. The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people's experiments. This type of machine which saves a great deal of time and reduces the possibility of making mistakes depends on a series of 10 toothed gear wheels. In 1830 Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed a machine that was called the analytical machine, sorry the analytical engine. This machine which Babbage showed at the Paris exhibition in 1855 was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished his work but many of his ideas were the basis for building today's computers. In 1930 the first analog computer was built by an American named Benavar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help aim guns. Mark I, the name given to the first digital computer was completed in 1944. The men responsible for this invention were Professor Howard Aiken and some people from IBM. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems all at a very fast rate. In 1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsylvania J. Ecker and J. Mockley built the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes. They named their new invention NEAC, E-N-I-A-C. Another important advancement in computers came in 1947 when John von Neumann developed the idea of keeping instructions for the computer inside the computer's memory. The first generation of computers which used vacuum tubes came out in 1950. Univac I is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. In 1960 the second generation of computers was developed and these could perform work ten times faster than their predecessors. The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Second generation computers were smaller, faster and more dependable than first generation computers. The third generation computers appeared on the market in 1965. These computers could do a million calculations a second which is a thousand times as many as first generation computers. Unlike second generation computers these are controlled by tiny integrated circuits and are consequently smaller and more dependable. Fourth generation computers have now arrived and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced in size. This is due to micro-miniaturization which means that the circuits now fit into a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon usually one tenth to one fourth inch upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted after which the circuits the circuit is encapsulated in plastic, ceramic or metal. Fourth generation computers are 50 times faster than third generation computers and can complete approximately one million instructions per second. At the rate computer technology is growing today's computers might be obsolete by 1985 and most certainly by 1990. It has been said that if transport technology had developed as rapidly as computer technology a trip across the Atlantic Ocean today would take a few seconds. Now you've read the text let us look at the exercises and these are comprehension exercises. The first one is to test the main idea to find out if you've grasped the main idea. There are three sentences given you, three statements and you select the statement which best expresses the main idea of the text and then you will decide why you eliminated the other choices. Statement number one computers as we know them today have gone through many changes. Statement number two today's computer probably won't be around for long. Statement three computers have had a very short history. Now out of these three which one expresses the main idea of the text you've read. The main idea is in statement number one which is that computers as we know them today have gone through many changes and statement number three computers have had a very short history. They express the main idea of the text. Statement number two does not. Today's computer probably around for long. Choice number two is a prediction. It's not a fact. It is not the main point in the description of the history of computers. This text that you have read it describes for you the history how computers evolved and this choice, choice number two is a prediction. It is not a fact. Let us look at number two exercise number two understanding the passage. Statements are given you and you will decide whether these statements are true or false. This will show whether you have understood the text correctly or not. After you've done the false statements you will have to correct them to make them true. Statement number one the abacus and the fingers are two calculating devices still in use today. Is the statement true or false? The abacus and the fingers are two calculating devices still in use today. What do you think? It's a true statement because the abacus is still it's your text says that it is still in use in many parts of the world and fingers are also used to calculate. So it is a true statement. Number two the slide rule was invented hundreds of years ago. What does the text say? The slide rule was invented hundreds of years ago. No this is a false statement because the slide rule is a modern invention. Statement number three during the early 1880's many people worked on inventing a mechanical calculating machine. During the early 1880's many people worked on inventing a mechanical calculating machine. It's a true statement because they were. Number four Charles Babbage an Englishman could well be called the father of computers. Charles Babbage an Englishman could well be called the father of computers and if you go back to your text you will find that he is the one who invented a machine which later on led to the discovery of computers. Statement number five this first computer was invented and built in the USA. True this statement the first computer was invented and built in the USA is true. Statement number six instructions used by computers have always been kept inside the computer's memory. Instructions used by computers have always been kept inside the computer's memory. This is a false statement. Why? It is false because I am giving you the correct version. Instructions which are not being executed are usually kept in secondary memory. Instructions you can rephrase this. You can rephrase this statement and make it true by saying instructions which are not being executed are usually kept in secondary memory. Statement number seven using transistors instead of vacuum tubes did nothing to increase the speed at which calculations were done. Using transistors instead of vacuum tubes did nothing to increase the speed at which calculations were done. This is a false statement. Why? Because it was the use of transistors which increased the speed at which calculations were being done. Statement eight as computers evolved their size decreased and their dependability increased. As computers evolved their size decreased and their dependability increased. It is a true statement because we find that in the beginning the size of the computers was huge and they were not as dependable as the later ones. And modern computer is very, very small in size compared to what we have in the beginning. So this statement, statement number eight is true. Statement number nine. Today's computers have more circuits than previous computers. Today's computers have more circuits than previous computers. It is a true statement. And the last one, computer technology has developed to a point from which new developments in the field will take a long time to come. It is a false statement because computer technology is constantly developing and at a very fast rate. So it is obvious this statement is wrong. You can rephrase it by saying computer technology is constantly developing and at a very fast rate. Now let us look at exercise three which is locating information in the text. Certain ideas are expressed and you have to go through your text and find where this idea occurs. Number one. During the same period in history logarithm tables and calculus were developed. Look in paragraph two and you will find underline the reference. Number two. It wasn't until the 19th century that a calculating machine was invented which tried to reduce manpower. Look at paragraph three. Look in paragraph three and you will locate the information. Number three. Integrated circuitry has further changed computers. Now where will you find this information? Look in paragraph five. Number four. People use their fingers to count. This you will find at the very beginning in paragraph one. Number five. The computers of the future may be quite different from those in use today. The computers of the future may be quite different from those in use today. A clue for you. Look in paragraph six. Number six. Today's computer circuits can be put on a chip for this. Look in paragraph five. Statement number seven. Then an instrument with beads was invented for counting before a mechanical wave for multiplying and dividing was devised. Very clear. It is at the beginning. Look in paragraph one where he talks about the abacus. And the last sentence, the last statement. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes. And this information you will find at the beginning of paragraph five. Now we will do an exercise in which your knowledge of vocabulary is developed. There are certain words used in your text for which you will find similar words. You will find words given on your screen. These are not the technical words that are used in your text. You look at the word and refer back to the text and find the word which means the same as those given on your screen. The word machine is given. You will find the word, a similar word which means machine. You will find it in paragraph one. There is a hint for you. There is a word there. It is a big word. The word machine. We use the word machine for everything. But there is a technical word. The word device is similar in meaning to the word machine. You can use the word device for the word machine. In the same way, the word designed. There is a word in paragraph two which means the same as designed. In the second paragraph you will find a word which means designed. It is a word which is similar to the word designed. And the word is, I am sure you have located it, it is devised. Now notice the difference between the earlier word device and this word devised. That word meant machine, a device. This is devised. It is a different spelling and it is pronounced in a different way, devised. The third word. There is a word in your text in paragraph three which means a lot. It is a similar word which we use for a lot. And the word, it is a phrase which means a lot, a lot of things. The phrase is a great deal. Similarly, there is a word in paragraph three which you can use for the fourth word in the list of words given. Errors. The word is errors. This is, there is a word in your text in paragraph three which means more or less the same as the word error. If you look in paragraph three you will find the word mistake. Mistake and error are synonyms. They are more or less the same in meaning. In the same way, the fifth word, solve. Solve. There is a word similar in meaning to solve and it is in paragraph four. Skim through the paragraph and look for the word. It is a phrase and it means the same as solving something. And the phrase I am sure you have located it is figure out. When you figure out something, it means that you have solved it. You have worked out a solution for it. These were synonyms. Now we will look at another aspect of vocabulary and that is antonyms. Words that are opposite in meaning. Again, five words are given to you. You have to skim through your text, scan your text, go through it quickly. I will call out the paragraph and you look for a word which is opposite in meaning to the word that is given on the screen. The word is old. You have to find, locate a word which is opposite to old in the text. If you look in paragraph two, you will find a word opposite in meaning to the word old. Well, very simple. The word is modern. The next phrase is a few. Look for a word which is opposite in meaning to the phrase a few. Scan paragraph three and you will find a word which is opposite in meaning to the phrase a few. I am sure you have located the word. The word is several which means many. It is the opposite of few. Number eight, there is a phrase to include. Look for a phrase which is opposite in meaning to include. To include means in Urdu, Shyamalkarna. You have to look for a phrase which gives you the opposite meaning. You see, cheese go back. And if you go through paragraph three, there is a phrase and the phrase is cut out. Number nine, contemporaries. The word contemporary, it means belonging to the same period. People who live at the same time are contemporaries. You have to look for a word which is opposite in meaning to contemporary. I can give you a hint. Go through paragraph five and you find a word over there which is opposite to contemporary. And the word is predecessors. Predecessors, pre means coming before. Contemporary was living at the same time. Now this is predecessors. Those who have passed away. Those who came before you. Those who were there earlier than you. So the opposite of contemporary is predecessors. And the last phrase is still in use. Something that is currently. It is in use. In current use. Still in use. Find a word in your text. And if you look at paragraph six, the last paragraph, you will find that there is a word which is directly opposite to the phrase still in use. It is a big word. I am sure you have got it. It is obsolete. Absolute. Something that is no longer in use. Something that is out of fashion is called obsolete. Something that is not in current use. Now we have looked at words, vocabulary. Words that are similar in meaning and words that are opposite in meaning. Now we will move on to another exercise. And this is an exercise in which we revise the contents of the text you have read. You will find ten sentences. Well, there are words in one column and statements in the other column. And you will have to match them. Match the words in one column with the statements in the other column. Those in column A must be matched with those in column B. The first one has been done for you. Spend some time. You will just see how far you have understood the contents of the passage. Number one is abacus. And if you go through the statements given in column B, quickly scan those statements and you will find that column in column B statement C matches the word abacus. And abacus is an instrument used for counting. Now look at number two, calculus. Go through the statements in column B and which one is it? Well, you have done C. Calculus is, it matches with J, statement J. It is a branch of mathematics. Number three, analog computer. What does A match with? Those that you have already done, just delete them. It has to be used to help aim guns. The correct statement is statement H. Analog computers were used to help aim guns. Number four, digital computer. Which statement do you think matches number four? A digital computer, its statement F. A digital computer was invented by Americans in 1944. That's the correct one. Number five, vacuum tubes. Well, vacuum tubes were used in the first digital computer. It's statement B. Number five, matches statement B. Vacuum tubes were used in the first digital computers. Number six, transistors. Transistors, if you go through column B, you will find transistors. You've done J and the other one. So it has to be G. Transistors made computers smaller and faster. It was with the help of transistors that computers became smaller and faster. Number seven, chip. The word chip matches with, it is E. Yes, it is E. Chip matches the phrase circuitry of fourth generation computers. Chips go with statement E. And number eight, micro-miniaturization. That's a big word. This would match with which one? It would match with I in column B. The reduction of circuitry onto a chip. Number eight matches with number I. And number nine, slide rule. So number nine would match, well, it's A. And instruments used for doing multiplication and division. And now let us look at the last one. It's written tables. They are used, it's number D, used in mathematics. We've done all the others, so it has to be number D. That was a review of the contents of the text that you have read. Now let's move on to another exercise. This is also based on a review of the text. On the screen, you will find a table. You have to fill the empty slots. In this exercise, the history of computers is given you according to chronology, according to the times. How it traces the history of computers for you. In one column you have time and in the other column you have the event. In some places you will find the time given to you. And in some you will find the event given to you. You have to match the event with the time. And in some places there are simple blanks. You have to fill in the time and the event. And the event that goes with it. Now look at the first one. The first one is primitive times. If you go over your text you will find what did people do in primitive times. In primitive times the event was the counted on the ten fingers. The ten fingers of a man's hand were used to count, to calculate. In the next column you find the event given. The event is the invention of the abacus. You have to find the word from the text that would go with the event. And at the same time it should be something that comes between primitive times and the 17th and 18th centuries. Because from primitive times till the 17th and 18th century something some invention took place. And the invention that took place was the abacus which was invented. And you will find that the word later is given to you. So primitive times the ten fingers were used. Later the abacus was invented. Sometimes after that, after the primitive times. The third major event time is the 17th and 18th centuries. And you find a number of things happening in that period. You find one, two, three. Three columns for you and you have to fill in the columns. What happened in the 17th century? What happened in the 18th century? If you go through your text you will find that your text says that Joe Napier devised mechanical ways of multiplying and dividing. The third major time period is the 17th and 18th centuries. And in the opposite column you find there are three events. Only one has been given you. You have to fill out the other two events. Henry Briggs produced logarithm tables. But something must have taken place before that and something after that. The events given you are incomplete. But a clue has been given you. You go through your text and quickly find out what took place before Henry Briggs produced the logarithm tables. And we find that it was Jane Napier who devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing. Fine. Then what happened after Henry Briggs logarithm tables? Go through the text and you find that it was Newton and Ladnitz who invented the calculus. So in the 17th and 18th centuries in that time period three major events took place in the history of the development of computers. Jane Napier devising mechanical ways, Henry Briggs producing logarithm tables and Newton and Ladnitz inventing calculus. The next event that has been given you is that Charles Babbage designed the analytical engine and you have not been given anything else. Scan your text and find out that it is something that took place in time at a certain time and an event that matches it. 1820 we find that the calculating machine appeared. Charles Babbage you have been told designed the analytical engine. But in what time? 1830. Then you have 1930 given you and there is a jump to 1947. And you have to find out what events took place in that period. In 1930 we find that the first analog computer was built by Bush. Then you have a clue. First use of vacuum tubes. Now when did that take place? That took place in 1946. In the time column you write 1946 and you have first use of vacuum tubes in digital computers. And the last column you got 1947. But you haven't been told what happened, what event took place. And the event that took place was that Newman developed ideas of keeping instructions inside memory. Now if you go through that fills out the table for you. And you will notice that in table form you have got the history of computers. The history of how computers were developed from primitive times right up till 1947. If you move further on you find 1950. There is a gap long period. And then you find that the major event that took place was that second generation computers were using something. So when did the second generation of computers when did they come about? Well they came about in 1960 and they were using transistors. But what happened before that? Before that the big event that took place was that the first generation computers which used vacuum tubes. They were discovered, they were invented. And the period was the time was 1950. So after 1947 the next major event is the first generation of computers. And that took place in 1950. And in 1960 you have the second generation of computers. Now in the space opposite the word now what will you write? There is a hint for you. We are talking about first generation, you have talked about first generation computers, second generation, third, so you will write fourth generation computers were reduced in size due to micro miniaturization by means of chips. And the last word is future. The last time, the column in the time column, you have the word future over there. And what have we to say about the future? The prediction is that today's computers will be obsolete. Now in this exercise you have put down in table form the history of the development or invention of the computer. And the last exercise that we will do today will again focus on the text, it's a review of the text. And this will, you will have to rely on your last two lessons of making connections, of making transitions, of making contextual references. Look at your text and find out what the words in italics refer to. The word that we know today in the first paragraph, it refers to something. What does the word that refer to? It refers to the history of computers. Number two, and it is still being used. The word in italics is it. What does it refer to? It refers to the abacus. The abacus that is still being used although it was invented way back in primitive times. Number three, which all mathematicians use today? And the word that has been underlined italicized is which. What does which refer to? Which refers to the logarithm tables which all mathematicians even today are using. Number four, again we have the word which in italics. Which saves a great deal of time. What does which refer to? Which refers to machine, the word machine that has come earlier. Number five, that was called the analytical engine. What does the word that refer to? It refers to the word machine. Number six, that could figure out long lists. What does that in that phrase refer to? That refers to the word machine. Number seven, they named their new invention. And the word they has been underlined to refer to the two engineers whose names have been given to you. They named their new invention. That is the two engineers named their new invention. Number eight, which could perform? What does which refer to? Which refers to computers? And number nine, these could perform. The word these refers to computers. And number ten, that are being developed. That refers to the word circuits. And with that we come to the end of today's lesson. In today's lesson we looked at a text which was about the history of computers. Allah Hafiz, see you next time.