 Chapter 4 of The Emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre, translated by William Pilling. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Recording by Piotr Natter. Chapter 4, San Lorenzo, 1813 to 1814. On the 31st of December 1812, the vanguard of the armies sent against Montevideo, under the command of Colonel Rondeau, completely defeated a strong sortie of the garrison and laid siege to the city. On the 31st of January 1813, the general constituent assembly met in Buenos Aires. The majority were members of the Lautaro Lodge, so there was no longer that anarchy of opinion which had neutralized the former assemblies. For the moment it fulfilled popular aspirations. The nominal sovereignty of the king of Spain was eclipsed. His name disappeared forever from public documents. The escutions of Spain were turned down. Titles of nobility, the inquisition and judicial torture were abolished. The effigy of former monarchs was substituted on coins by the seal of the United Provinces, a son with rays and a Phrygian cup, within a wreath of laurel. The colors of the Spanish flag were replaced by the blue and white of the Patriot Cocade and the last link with the mother country was broken by declaring the supremacy of the national courts of law. Everything was reformed even to the prayers of the priests and the songs of the people who now, in inspired verse, saluted, quote, a new and glorious nation with a conquered lion at her feet, end quote, note, a quotation from Alt Mortales, the Argentine national hymn, end quote. So was inaugurated this sovereignty of the Argentine people. A formal declaration of independence was now all that was wanting for the establishment of a republic. The armies in the field swore obedience to the assembly and marched with enthusiasm under new flag upon the fortifications of Montevideo and upon the entrenchments of Salta. Only upon the water did the spirit of revolution as yet make no progress. The maritime power of Spain seemed invincible in America. Her ships of war dominated the coasts from California on the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico on the Atlantic. The sailors of Montevideo dominated the river plate and its affluence. One day they bombarded Buenos Aires, another they spread terror along the banks of the Uruguay and sacked the defenseless towns on the Parana. Batteries were thrown up on the banks in front of Rosario and at Punta Gorda, which only diverted attack from these points to other, more defenseless. In October 1812 the towns of San Nicolás and San Pedro on the western bank of the Parana were canonated and sacked. Then, with the object of diverting the attention of the patriots from the siege of Montevideo, cutting off all communication by the rivers, with the interior, and of procuring supplies for the garrison of Montevideo, a flotilla was organized under the command of a noted smuggler, Ruiz by name, on which was shipped the Touchment of Infantry, led by a red-haired Biscayan named Zapala, a man of colossal stature, and of approved valor. The government of Buenos Aires, hearing of this expedition, ordered the battery at Rosario to be dismantled and the guns to be sent higher up the Parana to Punta Gorda, where the garrison was strengthened. The colonel of the mounted grenadiers also received orders to march with two squadrons for the protection of the coast from Zarate to Santa Fe. The royalist expedition, under convoy of three small ships of war, concentrated at the mouth of the Guazú, below the delta of the Parana, about the middle of January, and were there delayed by a north wind so that when San Martin reached the coast they were only commencing the ascent of the main valley. Keeping his troops out of sight, San Martin, disguised in the hat and poncho of a countryman, kept watch upon their movements from the bank, by day and by night. On the 28th of January they passed San Nicolas, and on the 29th anchored above Rosario without having as yet made any attempt to land. Escalada, commandant of Rosario, collected 22 men carrying baskets and 30 horsemen, and with a small gun, prepared to make what resistance he could. At daybreak, on the 30th, the flotilla cast anchor inside the island of San Lorenzo, which lies in the middle of the river, about 17 miles to the north of Rosario. The western bank here consists of high bluffs, affording no landing places except where narrow paths were cut through them to the water's edge. In front of one of these cuttings, the flotilla anchored. Beyond the low trees which bordered the edge of the bluffs stood the lonely monastery of San Carlos, a two-story building with a belfry on the roof. About a hundred men landed, but all the provisions they could obtain from the peaceful friars were a few fowls and melons. All cattle had been withdrawn from the coast. As the monastery bells struck half past seven, a cloud of dust was seen on the Rosario road. It was Escalada with his fifty men and his one small gun. The Spaniards retreated with drums beating to their boats, and Escalada opened fire upon them from the edge of the bluff, but was obliged to draw off as the guns of the flotilla had much longer range than his one piece. On the night of the 31st, a Paraguayan prisoner escaped from the flotilla, swimming ashore on a bundle of sticks. From him the Patriots learned that the whole force of the enemy did not exceed three hundred and fifty men, that they were mounting two small guns, intending to land next day in greater force for the purpose of searching the monastery for treasure, which they supposed to be hidden there, and that after securing the treasure they intended to proceed up the river, passing the batteries of Punta Gorda by night if they could not destroy them, and so cut off the trade with Paraguay. Escalada sent out messengers with this news, one of whom met San Martin and his grandadiers, who, following the windings of the river, had been left behind by the flotilla, which was favoured by a southerly breeze. Fortunately the wind now chopped round to the north and delayed the intended landing, so that when San Martin, by forced marches, reached the post house of San Lorenzo, three miles from the monastery, on the night of the 2nd of February, nothing yet had been done. At the post house he found fresh horses waiting for him, sent there by Escalada. In front of the post house stood an old carriage without horses. Two troopers rode up to it and asked, Who is there? A traveller, answered a sleepy voice. Another horseman rode up saying, Be careful, this is not an enemy, but an Englishman on his way to Paraguay. The traveller put his head out of one of the windows of the coach and thinking he recognized the figure and voice said, Surely you're Col. San Martin? If so, you have a friend here, Mr. Robertson, answered the other. And so it was, this was the well-known traveller, William Parrish Robertson, who was destined to witness the memorable events of the next day and to record what he saw. The two friends laughed together at their unexpected meeting in the dark and San Martin spoke of his project. The enemy has doubled the numbers of men that we have, but I doubt if they get any better of us. So say I, replied the Englishman, offering his visitors wine to drink to their success and asking permission to go with them. Agreed, answered San Martin, but take care, it is no part of your duty to fight, I will give you a horse, but if today goes against us, you must run for it. Then, giving the order to mount, he put himself with his friend at the head of the silent troopers and soon after midnight reached the monastery which they entered by a gateway in the rear of the edifice. All the cells were vacant, not a sound was to be heard in the cloisters, the gate being shut, the troopers dismounted in the large courtyard, the colonel enjoined silence upon them and forbade them to light fires. It brought to mind, says the English traveller, the Greek host hidden in the bowels of the wooden horse so fatal to Troy. San Martin, with a nightglass, ascended the tower of the church and saw by their lanterns that the enemy was yet there. He then carefully reconnoitered the country around him and from information furnished by escalada formed his plans. On the river face of the monastery a level plain, apt for cavalry maneuvers, extended for 350 yards to the edge of the bluff. Two winding paths, one only of which was practicable for infantry information, led to the beach below. He then withdrew his men from the courtyard and formed them holding their horses by the bridle behind the cloisters and outhouses leaving escalada and his volunteers within the edifice. At dawn he again mounted the tower. At five o'clock, as the shades of night melted away, boats laden with armed men were seen to leave the flotilla for the shore. At half past five, two small columns of infantry marched up the main path. Then San Martin came down from his post of observation and meeting Robertson at the foot of the stairs said, In two minutes more we shall be upon them, sword in hand. Paces off, his orderly held his charter ready, a fine cream-coloured horse fully comparison'd. In a moment he was in the sad loop. Drawing his curved saber he galloped off to his grenadiers who were now to enter into action for the first time and in a few words exhorted them to remember his lessons and above all not to fire a shot but to trust their lances and sabers. He put himself at the head of the second squadron and gave command of the first to Captain José Bermudez directing him to attack the flank and cut off the retreat of the invaders. And added, We will meet in the centre of the enemy's column. There I will give you further orders. The enemy, about 250 strong, had in the meantime advanced some 200 and odd yards. They came on quickly to the sound of drums and fives and with a flag in two parallel columns of half-companies with two four-pound guns between the columns and a little in the advance. Then was heard for the first time the war clarion of the mounted grenadiers. From the right and from the left of the monastery the two squadrons dashed forward at full gallop, saber in hand. San Martin led the attack on the left, Bermudez that on the right. San Martin being nearest was the first to fall on the enemy. The fire of the two guns failed to check the onset. The heads of the Spanish columns were thrown into disorder, but falling back opened a heavy fire of musketry. San Martin with his squadron encountered the column led by Thapala in person. His horse was killed by the first volley and a fierce hand-to-hand fight raged round him as he lay upon the ground caught by the leg by his fallen steed in which he received a slight saber-cut in the face. A Spanish soldier ran forward to bayonet him but was run through the body with a lance by a grenadier named by Gorria. Another trooper named Juan Bautista Cabral sprang from the saddle and released his leader from the fallen horse and fell himself pierced by two mortal wounds shouting, I die content, we have beaten the enemy. Almost at the same moment, Cornet Bouchard killed the bearer of the Spanish inside and captured the flag. The other column was also driven back by the charge of the squadron led by Bermudez and the Spaniards abandoning their guns retreated to the bluff where they attempted to form square under protection of the guns of the flotilla. Bermudez leading a second charge upon them was mortally wounded by a cannon shot and Lieutenant Manuel Diaz Veleth carried away by his enthusiasm fell with his horse over the bluff with a ball in his forehead and two bayonet wounds in his chest but the Spaniards were driven headlong to the beach leaving behind them besides their flag their guns and 50 muskets 40 dead and 14 prisoners many of those who escaped were wounded one of these being Zapala their leader the grenadiers had 15 killed and 27 wounded among whom each of the United Provinces had at least one representative Lieutenant Diaz Veleth being taken prisoner was carried on board the flotilla San Martín assisted by Robertson generously furnished the flotilla with fresh supplies for their wounded and arranged for an exchange of prisoners giving up those he had captured for three previously taken by the boats and for his wounded officer but Veleth died in the arms of his comrades a few hours after one of these released prisoners was a Paraguayan named Jose Felix Bogado he had once enlisted in the regiment and during 13 years service with it from San Lorenzo to Ayacucho won his way up to the rank of Connell and then returned to Buenos Aires accompanied by seven of the original troopers of the corps still covered with the blood and dust of the fight San Martín signed the despatch announcing his victory under the shade of an old pine tree which still stands in the garden of San Lorenzo the affair of San Lorenzo though of little military importance had a most beneficial effect upon the patriot cause the safety of the towns on the banks of the Paraná and Uruguay was secured communication with Entre Rios which was the base of the army besieging Montevideo was maintained the expected supplies to the city were cut off the trade with Paraguay was preserved and above all a new general given to the army and new vigor to the spirits of the man three days afterwards the discomputed flotilla descended the Paraná laden with wounded instead of plunder and carried the news to Montevideo at the same time San Martín returned to Buenos Aires and the enthusiasm of his reception brought dead and decolumnies which had already began to embitter his life on the 2nd of February the Spanish army entrenched that Salta was completely routed by General Belgrano the third victory in less than three months the revolution of the 8th of October and the influence of the Lautaro Lodge were justified by these results when San Martín returned to Buenos Aires he found that political parties confined within the limits of the capital weakened by local animosities and ultimately enclosed by the four walls of the lodge had degenerated into circles ruled by personal influences and like most of the influential men of the day he became imbued with the belief that a constitutional monarchy backed by Europe was the true solution of the political problem neither he nor they saw that the sentiment of the people was essentially republican secret societies have been at times the only means of organization left to an enslaved people but they have never accompanied the development of revolutionary ideas as a general rule they have produced nothing beyond abortive conspiracies among three people they are impotent thus the continuance of the secret and irresponsible influence of the Lautaro Lodge could have no other effect than to weaken the power of the General Assembly its own creation within the Lodge itself there soon arose two distinct parties one strove only for democratic independence the other was a personal party with Alvear at its head which presently absorbed the whole society the dream of Alvear was military glory and a dictatorship his friend Carrera was at this time May 1813 both a dictator and a general in his own country he took him as his model but was clear-sighted enough to see that their circumstances were not identical in June 1813 the army of the north a second time invaded Upper Peru under the orders of Belgrano but was badly beaten at Vilcapuchio on the 1st of October and almost destroyed at Iauma on the 14th of November the remnant retreated to its former position and Belgrano requested to be relieved of the command the United Provinces had not at this point any general conspicuous for military genius the laurels gained by Don Antonio González Balcarte at Suipacha were blighted at the desaquadero his brother, Don Martin Balcarte was in Chile in command of Argentine auxiliaries the victory of Don José Rondo in front of Montevideo was the first and last of his career he lacked the qualities of a commander in chief Belgrano was wanting both in technical knowledge and in warlike instinct but was the best of them all of the generals of division none had as yet shown any capacity for separate command the revolution which had been so far opposed by mediocre generals and badly organized troops had now to contend against skillful generals and well-disciplined troops Alvear applied for the command of the army of the north San Martin who considered the expedition against Montevideo of more importance willingly gave place to him but Alvear ever vacillating and loth to leave the field of politics changed his mind and recommended San Martin for the post San Martin was anxious to free himself from the troubles of party in order to gain freedom of action in the course he had marked out for himself he accordingly accepted the command of a reinforcement for the army of the north and received instructions to assume the command in chief if he should deem it advisable this reinforcement consisted of the seventh battalion of infantry, seven hundred strong two squadrons of the mounted grenadiers and one hundred artillery men and reached Tucuman before the close of the year 1813 soon after San Martin and Belgrano met at Yatasto on the road to Salta and swore friendship to each other and oath most faithfully kept by both these two celebrated men had never met before but had for some time corresponded San Martin presented himself as a subordinate but Belgrano looked to him as a master in the art of war and regarded him as his successor after some delay due to the reluctance of San Martin to supersede his friend he at length assumed the command on receipt of positive orders to that effect from government Belgrano remaining with him in command of a regiment Belgrano died in the belief that San Martin was the tutelor genius of South America and San Martin to the end of his days honored the memory of his illustrious friend as that of one of the purest patriots of the new world on the 22nd of January 1814 the executive power was concentrated in one person who took the title of supreme director Don Jervasio Antonio Posadas was selected by the lodge to fill this post and was duly elected by the general assembly no one was more surprised than himself at this appointment for which his only special recommendation was that he was the uncle of Alvear who for the present contended himself with the command of the army of the capital until such time as he could take command of the army of Montevideo and there achieve such military glory as should entitled him to supreme power the first care of San Martin on assuming command of the army of the north was to insist upon the regular payment of his men there existed in the army chest a sum of 36,000 dollars drawn from Upper Peru which government had directed should be paid over to the general treasury San Martin disobeyed the order and applied the money as he wished giving government at the same time his reason for doing so government approved of his conduct as justified by necessity for the army was at the time in the last stage of destitution End of chapter 4 Chapter 5 of the Emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre translated by William Pilling this LibriVox recording is in the public domain recording by Piotr Natter Chapter 5, Upper Peru, 1814 the military policy of the United Provinces had three distinct ends first to construct a new nation within the geographical limits of the old vice royalty of the river plate second to aid in the establishment of other South American nations who would be their natural allies and third to carry their arms beyond their frontiers for the removal of obstacles to their expansion hence the expedition to Paraguay and Montevideo the aid given to the insurgents in Chile and the war waged with the vice royalty of Peru the army of the north as the embodiment of this three-fold policy was styled the auxiliary army of Peru and its mission was to incorporate the provinces of Upper Peru as a portion of the old vice royalty to capture Lima, the center of Spanish power in South America and to bring Lower Peru into an alliance similar to that already contracted with Chile for four years Upper Peru had been the battlefield of the patriots and royalists it was now completely in the power of the latter the four provinces known as Upper Peru are shut in by mountain ranges and have no fluvial communication with either ocean situate within the tropics their high-table lands and intervening valleys furnish at once examples of perpetual winter and perpetual spring and yield all the natural products of the globe Upper Peru is divided by two spares from the Andes into three districts the western range runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean from the desert of Atacama which is a high-table land to the first valleys of Lower Peru on the coast cutting off an arid and thinly peopled district the central plain, well peopled but inclement is the natural road from the Argentine Republic to Lower Peru and was the theater of operations during the preceding campaigns the eastern range with lofty peaks covered with perpetual snow looks down upon a truly intertropical paradise at its foot extends to the west the smiling valley of Chliza where stands the city of Cochabamba with easy access over the hills to the central plateau and to Chiquisaca by valleys on the southeast behind Cochabamba and to the east of the range lies the Valle Grande which collects the mountain streams and delivers them to the Amazon more to the northeast lies Santa Cruz de la Sierra in the midst of a vast grassy plain which slopes gradually away to the confines of Brazil Paraguay and the Argentine Chaco the social organization of Aperperu was a continuation of the system of the Incas complicated by the antagonism of races Europeans had established themselves in six cities whose former inhabitants driven out to the ice-covered hills or to the torrid valleys this serves for their lords and masters as cultivators of the soil or as miners the lower class in these cities consisted of half-breeds and formed the greater part of the population all the rest of the country was peopled exclusively by two indigenous races who paid a capitation tax and had no civil rights the language of the conquerors was unintelligible to the mass of the people this country the first rebellion against the domination of Spain was quenched in blood in 1809 but news of the revolution of Buenos Aires in 1810 rekindled the smothering embers the movement was supported by Argentine troops under Balcarce who won the first victory of the war at Suipacha but was afterwards totally defeated on the des Aguadero the Patriots of Cochabamba, being thus left alone fought another battle by themselves at Sipe Sipe on the 13th of August 1811 but were defeated the ripples of the second invasion under Belgrano in 1813 was another great disappointment to them but still the spirit of the people was not crushed there was however no cohesion among them they had the courage to resist and to die on the field of battle or on the scaffold but they were unable to concert any plan of action thus these successive disasters greatly weakened the ties which bound them to the Patriots of Buenos Aires but vain were the efforts of the Spaniards to overcome the passive resistance of the people heads of rebels were exposed along the public roads the properties of such as had fled were confiscated and sold towns were sucked military commissions terrorized the country prisoners taken in the last campaign were sold as slaves to the owners of the vineyards and plantations of Peru but still insurrectionary movement constantly broke out even the Indians armed with nothing more than clubs slings and arrows braved death with the utmost stoicism certain that they would be avenged the Spanish general unable either to retreat or to advance established his headquarters at Tupita and while a portion of his army kept open communications in the rear his vanguard advanced to Salta constantly harassed by the country people who rose in arms on the retreat of the Patriot army to Tucumán the army which had twice defeated the armies of the united provinces was almost entirely composed of natives of the highlands of lower Peru they were men enured to hardships and privations untiring on the march faithful to their flag obedient to their officers and undaunted under fire they were half-breeds who spoke the same language as the people of the country in which they fought the climate of this country was the same as that of their own and they were accustomed to the peculiar requirements of mountain warfare all this gave them great advantage over the Argentine troops on that field of action and the remembrance of defeats disheartened the Patriot army Belgrano, after the rout of Ayouma had left Colonel Don Juan Antonio Alvarez de Alenales as governor of Cochabamba and commandant of the Patriot forces in the rear of the enemy and Colonel Don Ignacio Arnes as governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra under the orders of Alenales only men of their stamp could have undertaken the desperate enterprise of keeping alive the flames of insurrection in the mountains of Aperperu after such disasters Alenales is one of the most extraordinary characters of the Argentine Revolution born in Spain and educated in Buenos Aires he embraced with ardor the American cause and took a prominent part in the insurrection at Chiquisaca in 1809 Taken prisoner he was sent to Peru and remained in the casemates of Callao till set at liberty by the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812 at the time of the battle of Tucumán he was in Salta and there headed a patriotic movement which was immediately quelled previous to the battle of Salta he had joined the army of Belgrano and accompanied it to Aperperu to austere manners, tenacity of purpose and untiring activity he added the virtues of a good citizen great talents as an administrator, inflexible will and a brain fertile in war-like stratagems his face never displayed any signs of either pleasure or pain and his stern look and voice joined to this lion-like head marked him as one born to command but under all lay a warm heart more anxious to the right than to win glory Guarnes was of English descent but was born in Buenos Aires and in 1807 he had distinguished himself in defense of his native city San Martín on learning from Belgrano the character of Arenales at once opened communications with him and on two occasions sent him arms and ammunition with officers to aid him in his operations while Belgrano was in Aperperu Colonel Landivar, a Spaniard, was made prisoner at Santa Cruz de la Sierra the man had been one of the most merciless agents of Goyenche and was kept for trial by the general quote, not for having fought against our system but for the murders, robberies, burnings, violences, extortions and other excesses perpetrated by him in contravention of the laws of war end quote it was proved that he executed 54 prisoners of war whose heads and arms had been cut off and nailed to posts on the public roads the accused alleged that he had only ordered the execution of 33 individuals and that in obedience to express orders from Goyenche which he produced in evidence the defense was ably conducted by an officer of the Grenadiers who pleaded that the prisoner having acted only in obedience to the orders of the superior could not be looked upon as other than a prisoner of war the court pronounced sentence of death which sentence was laid before San Martin on the 13th of January 1814 who had once signed it without consulting government this trial gives an idea of the mode in which the war was waged in Aperperu the cruelties of the Spaniards produced reprisals on the part of the insurgents which so filled the land with bloodshed that, quote, the inhabitants looked calmly upon these scenes no one hesitated to risk his own life and all sought to shed the blood of those of the other party end quote such was the war into which Alenales now entered as leader of the 5th insurrection of Cochabamba the royalist army being in possession of the central plateau the position of Alenales at Cochabamba was untenable but the road by the Valle Grande was open to him he could join Guarnes at Santa Cruz de la Sierra and communicate with the Argentine provinces by the Chaco and from Santa Cruz he could march over well-wooded plains to Chiquisaca on the 29th of November he commenced his retreat with 60 musketeers four small guns, a few cavalry and a crowd of countrymen armed with clubs and slings who covered his flanks and rear in the valley of Misque he attempted to make a stand but was forced across the Cordillera to the headwaters of the eastern streams overtaken at Chian he beat off his pursuers and reached the Valle Grande where he recruited his forces forming an infantry battalion of 165 men and two squadrons of cavalry and was joined by some guerrilla chiefs the insurrection spread and Pethuela dispatched Col. Blanco with 600 men and three light guns to subdue it on his march Blanco met with six heads nailed to posts a gauge of defiance from the guerrillas who swarmed in the adjacent valleys on the 4th of February the two armies met the Patriots had at first the advantage till a part of their raw troops were seized with panic the royalists captured their guns and remained masters of the field Blanco shot his prisoners and cut off the heads of three leaders after which he retreated to Chian for reinforcements Alenales retreated to the frontier of Santa Cruz taking his arms and spare ammunitions with him on muleback reinforced by Warnes he halted at Abapo on the Rio Grande and in March had 204 infantry and 4 small guns Warnes refused to recognize his authority and took up a position for himself at Orcas with 1000 men advancing his outpost to Erradura and Petacas passes of the Cordillera considered impregnable as they were nothing more than flights of stairs cut in the sides of the mountain at the same time the Indians of the Chaco along the banks of the river of Pilcomayo rose up in favor of the Patriots Garia chiefs aroused a part of the province of La Plata and the towns in Blanco's rare were again in insurrection Pethuela despatched colonel Benavente with 500 men against this new insurrection but in spite of sundry advantages gained by both columns Benavente was so weakened that he was soon reduced to inaction and Blanco whose troops suffered greatly from fever was forced to evacuate the Viagrande early in April and retreat to Miske Arenales, while encamped to Mina received information that Blanco, resuming the offensive had forced the passes of Erradura and Petacas and had dispersed the division under Warnes he at once marched towards the scene of action and met Warnes at the head of only 300 men the latter, learning wisdom by his reverses placed himself under his orders Blanco had in the meantime taken the city of Santa Cruz and was now coming in search of them with 600 men of whom one half were regular infantry on the 24th of May the royalists came in sight and the Patriots retreated by a narrow defile leaving a small party to draw on the enemy at dawn on the 25th they reached the town of La Florida on the river Pirai Arenales took up a position on the right of this small river in an open space where the bank was about two yards high below the river spread out while in front lay a wide plain his flanks were protected by dense brushwood the town was behind him he planted his guns on the open placed his cavalry in ambush gate on each flank with Warnes in command on the right and the Lariva on the left at the foot of the bank he opened a trench concealed by sand and brushwood where he stationed his infantry kneeling and awaited the attack his entire force numbered about 800 men just before noon the same day a dropping fire was heard in the woods in front it came from the outposts where retreating before the enemy soon after that the royalist column debouched from the wood preceded by skirmishers Blanco drew up his men on the plain with strong cavalry reserves on the flanks and opened fire with his four pounders then as the infantry advanced firing the Patriot guns opened upon them when the skirmishers entered the river the entrenched infantry poured in a volley and springing from their shelter charged through the smoke with such impetuosity that aided by the cavalry on the left they completely routed the enemy Colonel Blanco remaining dead upon the field Arenales headed the pursuit in person with so little caution that he was attacked by a group of fugitives who left him for dead with 14 wounds, three of them in the face his men rushed in and saved him carrying him on their shoulders back to the camp two flags, two guns, 200 muskets 100 killed and 99 prisoners were the trophies of this victory while the Patriots lost only one man killed and 21 wounded including their leader such was the action of La Florida which saved Santa Cruz de la Sierra and compelled the retreat of the royalist army from Salta it gives the name of one of the principal streets of Buenos Aires for it Arenales was raised to the rank of general and a badge of honor was decreed to the troops engaged Arenales was no sooner well of his wounds than he marched with his division and reoccupied the Valle Grande routing a royalist force of 200 men at Postre Valle on the 4th of July but was on the 5th of August himself defeated at Sumapaita afterwards reinforced by Padilla with a body of Indian slingers he forced Benavente to retreat from Tomina and again reoccupied the Valle Grande 18 months he maintained this extraordinary war at the cost to the enemy of 1300 men killed wounded and missing entering Cochabamba at last in triumph and joining the Argentine army with 1200 men over the vast plains of La Plata the revolutionary spirit has spread almost unopposed but where mountain ranges marked out the limits of Upper Peru the movement could only advance by force of arms the map of the Old Vice Royalty did not coincide with that of the social revolution of the United Provinces Upper Peru had been the high road from Buenos Aires to Lima in time of peace it now remained for San Martin to decide whether the same road was strategically the proper road to Lima or not in time of war End of chapter 5 Chapter 6 of the Emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre translated by William Pilling this LibriVox recording is in the public domain recording by Pietrnatter Chapter 6 The War in the North, 1814 the army of the North when reinforced barely numbered 2000 men mostly recruits among whom desertion was frequent disorganized, short of officers and badly clothed it was quite incapable of making head against the enemy Juhui and Salta were held by the victorious Spaniards who threatened the whole of the northern frontier San Martin was more especially troubled by the lack of officers and the general want of discipline in the troops Pethuela, the Spanish general who had defeated Belgrano Edvil Capuchio and Ayouma had established his headquarters at Topitha on the frontier of Upper Peru and ordered a levy of two to three thousand men in the highlands of Lower Peru he also formed two battalions out of contingents from the nearest valleys of Chichas and Ciuti raising his army to about four thousand regulars his vanguard under Ramirez 1500 to 2000 strong with eight guns occupied Juhui and his cavalry scoured the country as far as Salta San Martin's outposts also reached almost to the city and at this time the men of the city and of the country roundabout rose en masse and formed a sort of vanguard to the army of the north San Martin had at that time no regular plan he neither knew his own resources nor the designs of the enemy and confined his efforts to the reorganization of the army after consultation with Col Naldorrego who commanded the advanced posts he determined to confide these positions to the district militia and to concentrate his regular forces into Kumann in carrying out this plan he received most valuable assistance from the devotion of the country people who masked all his movements and prevented the enemy from discovering anything either of his intentions or of his strength his first step was the construction of an entrenched camp to the north of the city which put a stop to desertion and he increased the number of his troops by recruiting here he stood on the defensive and limited his efforts to aiding the popular movements in Salta Cochabamba and Santa Cruz de la Sierra in this entrenched camp which is known to history as the citadel of Tucumán he established a school of instruction holding up the mounted grenadiers as a model for the rest of his force Belgrano was a most docile pupil but Dorego, though his talents were highly esteemed by San Martín was sent off to Santiago del Estero for insubordinate conduct Belgrano soon afterwards left the army giving as his last advice to his friends the maxim that war must be waged not with the arms alone but with the force of public opinion end quote which maxim was at that time exemplified by facts for the royalist armies held only the ground on which they stood and their movements were paralyzed by the popular insurrections all around them in the province of Salta the revolutionary movement was most pronounced the first popular manifestation in the city produced the organization of the civic militia in 1810 the urban guard was raised by the voluntary enlistment of youths of respectable families then arose spontaneously among the peasants of the campania a core of cavalry with the instincts of the Cossacks and the qualities of the Mameluks headed by a chieftain who made his name famous for deeds of prowess Martín Guémez had first born arms against the English in the reconquest of Buenos Aires in 1806 and in the memorable defense of 1807 he with his men formed the vanguard of the first patriot army which invaded Upper Peru his horsemen penetrated as far as Potosi and covered every movement of the patriots at Swipacha he did good service in 1811 he escorted the prisoners of the campaign to Buenos Aires where he was appointed to general staff with the rank of captain in 1813 he took part in the second siege of Montevideo and was absent from his native province at the time of Belgrano's expedition but when San Martín took command of the army he was at Santiago del Estero on his way back the insurrection of Salta in the face of the victorious enemy was carried out with equal deliberation and courage the population emigrated en masse the peasants abandoned their huts and the towns were left desolate in the capital even the tongs were taken from the church bells lest the enemy should use them to celebrate their victories two old friars alone remained in each convent to administer the sacraments to the sick and aged who could not go away when the royalist vanguard occupied the city of Salta a lieutenant named Ethanarro was detached with 30 men to occupy a district 32 miles to the south in the valley of Lerma the first Sunday after his arrival one of the men of the place after morning mass said we must rise again against this canaia with what arms asked another with those we take from them said yet another a proprietor named Luis Burela put himself at their head surprised the guard disarmed Ethanarro and his men and sent them prisoners to Tucumán then with the arms they had captured they barged to within 10 miles of Salta where they were met by a company of Spanish troops whom they charged at once and completely routed taking most of the men with their leaders prisoners and sending them also to Tucumán another proprietor named Pedro Zapala followed the example of Burela armed his peons and some volunteers and took the field so began the resistance to the enemy in which the whole people speedily joined so that Salta became a bulwark to the united provinces impregnable to royalist arms solely by the force of public opinion roused to action the province of Salta which at that time formed a part of the jurisdiction of Hujui enters within the first spares of the Andes which branch from the second of the two ranges which enclose Upper Peru and has the same physical characteristics plains, mountains and an intermediate tropical zone its possession was thus of great importance to the invaders as it was the gate to Argentine territory the occupation of Hujui opened the road to the plains and valleys of Salta but even the occupation of Salta itself did not secure their position the agricultural lands from which alone supplies could be drawn lay in valleys to the south of the capital and it was this part of the province the guerrillas undertook to defend the nature of the country and permanently adapted it to guerrilla warfare the inhabitants were a hardworking race of men strong, active and inured to hardships individually brave and with a natural instinct for the class of warfare they waged they were horsemen accustomed to go either up or downhill at full speed whose ordinary equipment enabled them to gallop unharmed through thorny brushwood they were good marksmen from the treetops or from horseback or on foot from behind their horses if need were San Martin made no mistake when he entrusted to them the task of keeping the royalists at bay while he was engaged in the reorganization of the regular army at Tucumán he had seen in Spain what might be accomplished by this class of irregular troops Bethuela, deceived by false dispatches which San Martin cost to fall in his hands believed that these raw levies were the vanguard of the Patriot army advancing on Salta and in consequence lost much valuable time waiting for reinforcements in March the royalist vanguard advanced from Salta into the valley of Lerma in search of supplies under the command of Col. Saturnino Castro a native of Salta who had the repute of being the first cavalry officer of the royalist army of Peru and whose valor had decided the day at Vilcapuchio the guerrillas who became known to history as the Gauchos of Salta greatly harassed the progress of the expedition swarming in the woods along the line of March cutting off stragglers driving in small detachments and firing upon the main body from any convenient shelter on the 24th Vides and the Guachipas river at the end of the valley was described 56 of the enemy under Captain Fajardo approaching them Captain Saravia collected 30 men armed with short muskets and a group of peasantry with clubs and pikes charged upon them and completely routed them killing 11 including the captain and making 27 prisoners while he had only 3 men killed and one wounded meantime Guemes had entered the Sierra to the east of Salta and on the 9th and 18th two parties of his Gauchos surprised two detachments of the enemy on the 29th he came so close to the city that Castro saluted out against him for about a league with 80 men but was completely routed with the loss of half his force for this feat Guemes was named Commandant General of the Vanguard and on the recommendation of San Martin was raised to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel Guemes then occupied the approaches to the city and harassed the garrison by daily attacks upon the suburbs being reinforced from Kuhui the royalists then organized two expeditions of 500 men each one composed of a battalion of infantry and a squadron of light horse under Colonel Alvarez marched early in June into the valley of Lerma at the town of Sumalao Alvarez found the vanguard of the Guachipas awaiting him the patriot outposts were driven in but the main body sheltered by trees and broken ground poured so heavy a fire upon him that he was forced to return to the city with many killed and wounded and with the loss of all the supplies he had seized the other column also composed of infantry and cavalry was under the command of Colonel Marquis Guy who like Castro was a native of Salta and of great repute for skill and knowledge of the country this column marched to the east and was met by Guemes in person who made so stubborn a resistance that it was also forced back to the city and the siege was re-established Pethuela had drawn in his reserves and advanced to Kuhui then he sent orders to Colonel Marquis Guy to march with 100 infantry and 150 horse by the north eastern frontiers of Tucumán and Santiago del Estero to the rear of the advanced guard of the Patriots on the river Pasaje Marquis Guy carried out his instructions with great skill captured several forts and learned from prisoners that the army of San Martín consisted only of 3,000 recruits and that the vanguard which gave them so much trouble was nothing but a form of undisciplined Gauchos but he also learned that the object of the campaign which was the relief of Montevideo was now impossible that city having already fallen when news of this expedition reached Tucumán Guemes was immediately reinforced by 100 infantry and 100 mounted grenadiers and Marquis Guy retreated marching 100 leagues in a semi-circle but was prevented from carrying either horses or cattle this was the last attempted invasion 5000 men were not enough to capture Tucumán much less to conquer the country Pethuela withdrew his troops beyond the frontier and sent off a strong detachment to Cúthco to crush an insurrection which had broken out in that city the object of the royalist invasion was by a powerful diversion to compel the Argentine government to withdrew their army from the Banda Oriental for the protection of the northern provinces but meantime that government had armed and equipped a small naval force which under the command of an Irishman named Brown had on the 16th of May defeated and almost destroyed the Spanish squadron stationed at the Montevideo which city soon after surrendered to the Argentine army then besieging it under the command of Alvear before the conclusion of these events the general of the army of the north had disappeared from the theater of war San Martin after careful study of the question had clearly discerned that the road by Upper Peru was not the true strategic line of the South American Revolution his idea was to carry the war to the west to pass the Andes to occupy Chile to secure the Dominion of the Pacific and to attack Lower Peru on the flank continuing military operations to the north merely as a subordinate detail of the main design this plan the merits of which were not appreciated by his contemporaries until it was crowned with victory is looked upon by posterity as not merely the most simple but as the only possible plan which could give the desired result it was then held to be folly whilst in reality the folly persevering in the attempt to reach Lima with insufficient means and by an impracticable route knowing that it would be looked upon as folly San Martin kept his idea to himself as his secret as he himself styled it in confidential intercourse waiting to disclose it for the day when he should hold in his hand the thunderbolt which was to shutter the power of Spain in America three months after taking command of the army of the north he wrote to his friends Don Nicolas Rodriguez Pena quote don't flatter yourself with thinking of what I can do here I shall do nothing and nothing here pleases me our country can do nothing more here than act on the defensive for which war the brave gauchos of Salta suffice if aided by two squadrons of regular troops to think otherwise is to throw money into an abyss I have already told you my secret a small well-disciplined army in Mendoza to cross to Chile and finish off the Goths there aiding a government of trusty friends to put an end to the anarchy which reigns allying our forces we shall then go by sea to Lima this is our course and no other end quote this idea which was a secret in 1814 and which would if divulged have caused its author to be looked upon as a lunatic is the idea which has given San Martin his place in the history of the world and which finally changed the destinies of South America with such plans in his head San Martin could not rest content with the command of the army of the north further his rival Alvear after crowning himself with the laurels of victory at Montevideo inspired also to those of Peru doubtless with his enterprising character and sparks of genius he would have broken the routine of the previous campaigns and San Martin was willing to yield his post to him asking for himself as for a resting place the government of the obscure province of Mendoza by which he threw dust in the ice not only of the enemies of America but also in those of his own friends orientating the tactics of William the silent to whose character his own bears some analogy in addition he was towards the end of April attacked by an affection of the lungs which obliged him to leave Don Francisco Fernández de la Cruz in command of the army and to retire by the advice of his physician to the Sierra of Cordoba in search of a drier climate on the 10th of August 1814 the ex-general of the army of the north was appointed governor of Cuyo from that moment he lived only for his idea Mendoza was the starting point in the realization of his plans it was the soil when sprang the legions which were to liberate America end of chapter 6 chapter 7 of the Emancipation of South America by Bartolomé Mitre translated by William Pilling this LibriVox recording is in the public domain recording by Pietro Natter chapter 7 the Chilean Argentine Revolution 1810 to 1811 in September 1814 San Martín took charge of the government of Cuyo the revolution of Chile had then lasted for years and was about to succumb a prey to intestine discords and to the arms of Peru in order to understand what followed we must proceed to appearance of San Martín upon the scene never were two peoples more analogous and less alike than the peoples of Chile and of the united provinces both countries were situated at the southern extremity of the new continent under the same degrees of latitude but while one was shut up between the mountains and the sea the other spread over vast plains the first was agricultural the second was pastoral and commercial Chile possessed a territorial aristocracy and a population of half breeds whose relations were somewhat feudal in character the Argentine people were by nature democratic both people sprang from the same origin and were intemperament alike the colonization of Mexico and Peru was an imitation of the feudal system of Europe the labor of an enslaved race was utilized by the production of the precious metals the colonization of the river plate and of Chile was affected by the colonists themselves assimilating in some degree the indigenous races they conquered their territories from a war like people and in so doing developed their own aptitude for war while they supplied themselves with the first necessaries of life by their own labor while the colonists of the river plate crossed immense deserts and established the Pacific by way of Upper Peru the colonists of Chile crossed the Andes from Arauco and established themselves to the east of the Cordillera at Mendota opening for themselves a road to the Atlantic thus the city of Mendota capital of the Argentine province of Cuyo was a bond of union between the two countries during the colonial epoch Chile had vegetated into obscurity amid peace and plenty but the provinces of the river plate had lived in a state of almost constant warfare with their neighbors the Portuguese the English and the Indians which gave them some knowledge of their own strength and inoculated them with new ideas these ideas filtered across the Cordillera to Chile and there smoldered till in the year 1810 the flames of revolution burst out in both countries almost simultaneously the Kingdom of Chile as it was called was colonized under the auspices of Peru but was in 1778 separated from the vice-royalty and placed under the orders of a governor who was at the same time president of the real audiencia these two authorities with the cabildos granted to some cities constituted the whole political, judicial and municipal system of the colony the separation from Peru inspired the colonists with instinctive ideas of independent autonomy till the death of the then governor Munoz Guzman on the 10th of February 1808 plunged the hither to pacific colony into a fever of expectancy the home government followed no fixed system in the appointment of the superior authorities in the colonies their nomination came from the crown direct sometimes vacancies were provided for beforehand sometimes the colonists were empowered to make a provisional appointment but laterally that power was as a rule vested in the audiencia in 1806 all this was changed by royal decree which enacted that in case of a vacancy the military official of the highest rank then in the colony should assume the vacant post on the death of Munoz Guzman the audiencia of Chile raised its own president to the vacant office the officers stationed on the frontier of Araucania protested against this appointment and proclaimed colonel Don Francisco García Carrasco provisional governor and captain general and the audiencia was forced to yield the new captain general took with him to the capital as his secretary and counsellor a man who had for many years resided in Concepción who had great influence in the south and was highly thought of throughout the country this was doctor Don Juan Martinez de Rosas an Argentine born in Mendota who was at that time 49 years of age he was a graduate of the University of Córdoba and a fellow student with doctor Castei through whom he afterwards entered into political relations with Belgrano in various official positions in Chile he had gained experience of public affairs and his wife was a daughter of one of the principal families of the south of a passionate character he was at the same time prudent was well read in the current literature of the day and was the leading spirit in a group of men who discussed among themselves the future destinies of America the new captain general was a man of limited intelligence violent in his proceedings and with no firmness of character thus he soon made himself hated and was despised by all his one passion was cock fighting his greatest pleasure was in listening to jokes and his affections were concentrated upon a domestic of African race through whose hands all favors were bestowed the whole aim of Rosas was to make him an instrument for social and political reform to this end he strove to raise the cabildo of Santiago into a position analogous to that of Buenos Aires and to use it as a counter poise to that of the audiencia the governor by his advice added 12 members to this body influential citizens most of whom were men of advanced opinions the immediate result of this innovation was to inoculate this assembly with revolutionary ideas 39th the 7th being now a prisoner of Napoleon the Creoles thought that the time had come to replace the colonial system by a government of their own but the Spaniards who thought only of preserving their own privileges protested against this idea the two parties soon came into collision the governor cancelled the decree which added 12 members to the cabildo and quarrelled first with the audiencia and then with Dr. Rosas the Spaniards strove to reconcile him with the audiencia and advised him to fortify the hill of Santa Lucia which commands the city and to arm their partisans but finding their councils set at naught they denounced him to the viceroy of Buenos Aires as unfit for the post he held he on his part appealed for help both to the viceroy of Buenos Aires and to him of Peru at the same time several leading chillians aided by young Argentines resident at Santiago opened communications with the popular leaders of Buenos Aires Rosasco then tried what intimidation would do on the 25th of May 1810 the same day on which the viceroy of Buenos Aires was deposed by the people he ordered the arrest of three of the principal citizens of Santiago as advocates of revolutionary ideas the municipal authorities protested and convened an open cabildo which cited the governor before them he thought at first of resistance but three thousand men filled the plaza he could not depend upon the troops and at the request of the audiencia he presented himself amid the shouts of the populace who clamored for his deposition a new procurator elected by the cabildo the previous one being among the prisoners opened the case by declaring that it was the will of the people that the prisoners should be set free and that the cabildo would remain sitting till it was done this was the first time such a thing as the will of the people had been heard of in Chile and the speech of the new tribune was loudly applauded Carrasco yielded and decreed not only the liberation of the prisoners but also the dismissal from their posts of those which had aided in the arbitrary measure he also accepted the control of an assessor without whose authorization his judicial acts jude in future be invalid these decrees were endorsed by the audiencia which was a virtual dismissal from office of the last governor and captain general of Chile from that day the latent spirit of revolution gained ground but the efforts of the patriots were as yet limited to theoretical discussions their headquarters were in Santiago the warlike province of Concepción was their base and their teachings came from Buenos Aires the Athens of the new world was compiled by a Chilean historian the growth of public opinion in Santiago and the news constantly arriving from Spain more especially that of the battle of Ocania kept the interest alive the south of Chile whose capital was Concepción virtually formed a distinct country the people called themselves penquistos to distinguish themselves from their northern neighbors who styled themselves chileans their troublesome neighbors of Araucania had accustomed them to war their pastoral and agricultural pursuits made them strong and hardy their society included a class of free peasantry among whom the army of the frontier found recruits and from whom sprang the most distinguished leaders on both sides in the war which followed the man of most influence in this district in 1809 was doctor Rothas who after his quarrel with Carrasco returned to Concepción and began openly to work for independence he advised that Chile without renouncing her allegiance to her captive sovereign should provisionally appoint a national government after the example said by the provinces of Spain which idea he advocated in a manuscript circular for at that day there was no printing press in Chile among the co-workers with Rothas was a wealthy proprietor of the south named Don Bernardo O'Higgins son of the celebrated viceroy of the same name educated in Europe he spoke English and was by reason of his iridescent partial to the institution of England a disciple and confidant of Miranda he had been affiliated in his lodge swearing as did San Martin and Bolivar to work for the liberty of the new world Carrasco kept the prisoners in jail in spite of his promise to the Cabildo and issued a decree establishing a special junta to keep watch over the advocates of the new ideas the excitement in Santiago increased and 800 armed citizens demanded the institution of a governing junta in imitation of that established in Buenos Aires on the 25th of May the audiencia prevailed upon Carrasco to resign his power into the hands of the Count de la Conquista a Chilean noble who was 85 years of age the Patriots were not satisfied but as they succeeded in surrounding the new governor by counsellors in whom they could trust they for a time acquiesced about the end of July an emissary from Belgano and Caste crossed the Andes the Patriots stimulated by the news he brought determined to persist in their previous design and induced the Count to convert and open Cabildo on the 18th of September to insure their triumph the Cabildo called out the city militia and the proprietors of Santiago filled the suburbs with their armed tenantry they were also joined by some officers of the garrison in spite of the protest of the audiencia the Count laid down his button of command and the Cabildo appointed a governing junta of seven members of whom Dr. Rothas was one being named president the new government was accepted by the whole country but nothing was changed until the arrival of Dr. Rothas who on the 2nd of November entered the capital in triumph between lines of troops amidst salvos of artillery the clang of bells music and loud acclamations all that night the city was illuminated and fireworks blazed in his honor never had Santiago witnessed such innovation the Chilean Revolution resembled that of Buenos Aires in that it was parliamentary and legal imitated and carried out within the pressings of the municipal forum and that it triumphed by the force of opinion without violence in the name of the public will both followed the same formula the resumption of their own rights without a rapture with the mother country and protesting fidelity to the legitimate sovereign aristocratic revolution the second was democratic and radical but both were essentially American and obeyed the same historic law thus from the beginning the two nations were bounced together by fraternal ties and by common cause the news of the installation of the junta of Chile was received in Buenos Aires with transports of joy and the thunder of their guns on the 11th of October reverberated in the hearts of the Chilean people Buenos Aires proposed at once an alliance offensive and defensive assuring the Chileans that England would recognize any constitution they might give themselves now that Spain had fallen Orozas in return presented a plan for a vast continental confederation which idea found an eager advocate in Alvarez-Jonte the Argentine envoy who as a practical exposition of it asked Chile for an auxiliary force in aid of the Argentine government against the reactionary movement which had its headquarters in Montevideo the Cabildo opposed the project Patrozas had the majority of the junta with him and in 1811 a decree was published for the despatch of an auxiliary force of 500 men and authorizing the Argentine envoy to enlist 2000 recruits this sealed the alliance of the two countries and their destinies for good or evil of the promised contingent 100 dragoons and 200 infantry reached Buenos Aires on the 14th of June 1811 and met with an enthusiastic reception the patriot party soon became divided into two factions the radicals who aimed at independence were headed by Orozas and had in their front line the Argentine residents the death of the Count de la Conquista in February 1811 left Dorthas at the head of affairs but his power was more apparent than real against him at the head of the moderate party was ranged to the Cabildo sustained by the Creole aristocracy whose timid temporizing policy almost placed them in line with the party of reaction the royalist called the Goth or Saracen party recognized the leadership of the audiencia accused Dorthas of personal ambition and even of aspiring to the crown Dorthas had no such ambition and lacked even the spontaneous courage of a man of action through all this opposition he carried on his plan of reform of which freedom of commerce was the most important feature this was proclaimed in February 1811 with the result that in a few months the revenue was doubled and was soon after quadrupled he also raised troops by general congress of deputies from the provinces whose election was based upon the limitations established by municipal precedent the first of April was the day appointed for the elections that same day a part of the garrison of Santiago Mutinid under Col. El Figueroa who was a friend of Dorthas at first the daring royalist was successful and occupied the plaza placing himself under the orders of the audiencia were declined all responsibility Dorthas, who alone of his colleagues preserved his presence of mind ordered the rest of the troops to march against the mutineers the two forces met in the plaza and opened fire on each other simultaneously at close quarters the affair soon ended in favor of the patriots young Manuel Dorego of Buenos Aires at that time a student of the university particularly distinguishing himself in the fight Figueroa took refuge in the convent where he was captured by Dorthas at the head of a party of citizens was tried the same night sentenced to death quote as a traitor to his country and the government and was shot the next morning at four o'clock the bodies of five of the mutineers who had been killed were hung on a gallows in the plaza on the afternoon of the first and next day proclamation was made who conspired against the state would be similarly punished immediately afterwards the audiencia was dissolved and with it disappeared the last semblance of monarchical authority in Chile meantime the election passed off quietly in the rest of the country in the center the Creole oligarchy triumphed the great proprietors being elected by their tenants without opposition but in the south and in some of the northern districts the radicals were successful following the example of Buenos Aires the deputies were incorporated with the executive in spite of the just protests of the cabildo which revenge itself by procuring the election of 12 deputies for the capital in place of the six it ought to have had according to the electoral census on the 6th of May the interrupted election took place in Santiago the candidates of Dorthas being defeated from this day his power waned congress met on the 4th of July out of 40 members Dorthas could only count upon 13 votes on the same day the junta resigned and the high congress assumed the executive power Dorthas in an eloquent speech gave a sketch of his policy which he recommended for their adoption and was listened to with deep attention by the whole assembly for the moment all the discordant opinions vibrated in harmony it is an interesting question whether this early establishment of the parliamentary system was of benefit or was an evil to Chile the Chilean historian Vicunia McKenna considers it premature he says quote the dictatorship of a Caesar rather than that of a Cicero and quote would have been preferable for a people without constitutional education Hervinos thinks that it assured to Chile later on that tranquility so wanting in the other republics of South America La Starria more philosophical than either observes that the establishment of the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people even under such restrictions as placed them in the hands of a few only was the true way to weaken colonial prejudices and to arouse the idea of a dignity of men the fact is that it was the natural outcome of the feudal character of Chilean society in the parliamentary drama the people played the part of the Greek chorus which repeated the words of the principal actor Chile soon remedied the error copied from Buenos Aires of incorporating congress with the executive which shows the existence of a hidden force neutralizing the effect of an evil example the revolutions of Holland and of the United States had shown the world that a regular congress was compatible with a dictatorship and even in South America it was seen later on that no dictatorship however powerful could disregard the will of the people from whom its authority was derived in Chile less than in any other colony was this possible nevertheless it is certain that Rothas convened this congress in obedience to a solemn promise exacted from him by O'Higgins as a condition of his support that party which had a large majority in congress knew not what used to make of their power they were without experience without plans and had no fixed ideas most of them desired only peace and security for their properties the minority had clearer views they aimed at raising their leader to the head of the state and at independence on the 27th of July an English ship of war reached Valparaiso the captain was commissioned by device Roy of Peru with credentials from the regency of Spain to receive the subsidy which Chile was expected to contribute for the maintenance of the war in the peninsula one million six hundred thousand dollars had been deposited in the treasury for this purpose the moderates and the royalists were for paying the amount at once but O'Higgins speaking for the liberals said quote although we are in a minority we know how to supply that defect by our energy and our courage we are sufficient to oppose effectually the delivery of this money of which our country threatened with invasion has need end quote this bold protest decided the question in the negative the liberals afterwards proposed the appointment of an executive of three one for each of the three territorial divisions of the country the north the south and the center moderates accepted the idea but put off the election the liberals then attempted to intimidate congress by popular tummels sadly compromising their leader by these sinister maneuvers congress showed more firmness than could have been expected from its composition and the defeated minority seceded from the assembly the majority then named three of their own party as the junta and Rothas looking upon his cause as lost retired to Concepción where he was received in triumph and set up an opposition junta the south recalling its members from congress congress then drew up a constitution so unworkable that it only served to show their utter lack of all political knowledge it never came into operation end of chapter 7 chapter 8 of the emancipation of South America by Bartolomé Mitre translated by William Pilling this Libervox recording is in the public domain recording by Pieternatter progress and fall of the Chilean Revolution 1811 to 1814 the disappearance of the radical party in congress the reactionary policy of the conservatives and the proceedings of Rothas in Concepción had more evil effect upon the course of the revolution in Chile liberalism became anarchy and the political power of the republic became mixed up with the Spanish Party at this junction Don José Miguel Carrera returned to his native land Carrera was a scion of one of the most distinguished families in Chile and was at that time 27 years of age he had fought in Spain against the French and brought with him a major commission in the army of Chile the elder Juan José was a man of herculean strength but with feeble intellect wanting and moral courage and full of envy of his more talented brother the youngest and most amiable of the three was named Luis and was at that time 20 years of age in danger he was always found of the front rank and was devoted to José Miguel these three had a sister with a masculine strength of mind she was skillful in intrigue and ambitious but was distinguished both by social and domestic virtues her intrepid spirit made her an agarria of her brothers José Miguel was a man of action and a thinker so far as his unruly nature would permit of vehement passions and licentious life a ready writer and a brilliant speaker of good presence and of attractive manners with an overweening sense of his own importance he was a sort of an alcibiades shorn of his great qualities Carrera presented himself publicly to congress dressed in his brilliant uniform offered his services and his sword and then entered into secret negotiations with the liberal party through the powerful family of La Reina with them he organized a popular demonstration by which the government was upset in the north of September a new junta of five members was appointed six of the members of congress for the capital were dismissed as illegally elected and three seats were declared vacant congress had hesitated to grant the request of the government of Buenos Aires for 40 quintals of gunpowder from the factory in Chile the new government sent off 200 quintals it reduced the taxes reformed some abuses in administration encouraged industry armed the militia and had the glory of making Chile the first nation in America to abolish slavery the principal posts were monopolized by the La Reina family greatly to the disgust of Carrera one of this family boasting that the legislative, executive and judicial presidencies were all held by them Carrera asked and who has the presidency of the bayonets dazzled by his popularity he now only thought of how to overturn the new government and even sought and obtained help from Spanish party to this end on the 15th of November Juan José Carrera mutinied with his battalion and seized the barracks of the artillery Luis headed the artilleryman and dragged the guns into the street the role of their wheels on the pavement giving the signal for a fresh revolution José Miguel put himself at the head of the mutiny and summoned the executive and congress to meet and hear the petitions of the people he was joined only by the Spanish party who shouted for the dissolution of the junta and of congress the next day an open cabildo was convened which named a new junta composed of José Miguel Carrera as representative of the capital Gaspar Marine for the north and Rothas or in his absence Don Bernardo O'Higgins for the south this resolution was presented to congress by the military chiefs and congress after some delay authorized the appointment of the new junta on the 27th of November on pretext that he was in danger of assassination Carrera made several arrests he himself took one of the prisoners to the barracks made him kneel before a crucifix and by threatening him with immediate execution forced from him a declaration against the others the trial which followed proved the innocence of the accused called to account by his colleagues and by congress he on the 2nd of December demanded the dissolution of the latter occupied the legislative palace with troops and forced from the assembly a decree to that effect Marine and O'Higgins protested and withdrew from the junta Carrera replaced them by one of his own partisans and by a noted leader of the Spanish party the two political parties which represented the aristocracy and democracy of Chile disappeared and the country fell under the domination of a military oligarchy which setting aside laws juntas and congresses depended only on the army for support Juan José Carrera was raised to the rank of Brigadier General and his brothers were made lieutenant colonels with special decorations for their services public opinion was entirely against the Carreras all eyes turned to the south and to Rothas as the only man who could vindicate the law Rothas protested against the mutiny and offered his assistance to congress but he was in an anomalous position by leaving the capital and setting up an opposition junta at Concepción he had entered upon dangerous ground and had subbed the base of his moral power and destroyed the territorial unity of the revolution and had aroused provincial jealousies thus Carrera, though destitute of political principle and seeking only his own aggrandizement was the true representative of the cause of national unity the center of Chile is divided from the south by the river Maula Carrera stationed an army on the north bank while through the intervention of Ahiggins he conferred with Rothas on the 12th of January 1812 a convention was drawn up by three pletipotentiaries which recognized the south center and north as three distinct provinces each of which should name one member of an executive until a constituent congress could be convened Carrera was in no haste to ratify this convention till an army from the south advanced to the line of the Maula a collision was prevented by an interview on the 25th of April between the two leaders who verbally agreed to the ratification of the convention and the re-installation of congress this agreement was hailed with joy throughout the country and Carrera was received in triumph on his return to Santiago it was not patriotism nor fear of the penquistos which induced Carrera to restore the congress he had dissolved the Argentine government appealed to by the government the conception had offered their mediation but the most serious matter was that the province of Valdivia had on the 12th of March declared itself royalist and proclaimed Carrera captain general of the kingdom an appointment which he indignantly rejected Valdivia occupied the extreme south of the country had a seaport with fortifications which were considered impregnable and was supported by the archipelago of Chile where the people were all royalists and had a royalist garrison early in 1812 the first printing press was established in Chile and on the 13th of February appeared the first newspaper entitled La Aurora de Chile edited by Cabilo Enriquez a priest assisted by an Argentine named Vera y Pintado and by Irritarra of Guatemala from the United States together with the printing press Mr. Poinsett as consular agent who introduced a new element into the political opinions of the country democratic ideas which new ideas found at first little acceptance save in the army where they were fostered by Carrera as encounter poise to the federal ideas which had gained strength during the recent events on the night of the 9th of July a revolutionary movement broke out in Concepción headed by the partisans of Orozzas but secretly fomented by the Spanish party which dissolved the provincial junta Rothas went to Santiago whence he was banished by Carrera to Mendoza and died there on the 3rd of March, 1813 Carrera was now without arrival and the revolution gained in unity and in strength the various parties commenced to fuse together with his authority as a common center and desire for independence became more marked when Consul Poinsett celebrated his national anniversary on the 4th of July the flag of the stars and stripes was seen entwined with an unknown tricolored flag bearing a lone star in one of its corners this unknown flag was the new flag of Chile on the 16th of July the tricolored cocaine was worn by all the citizens of Santiago and on the 30th of September the new flag was formally recognized as the national ensign nevertheless independence was not then declared still government was carried on in the name of the 39th while the Carreras went about the city at night in disguise with groups of young men pulling down the escutions of the Creole aristocracy in order to test his popularity Carrera then sent in his resignation which the Cabildo refused to accept in consequence of a misunderstanding with his brother Juan José who was still envious of him he repeated his resignation but in conjunction with his brother Luis reserved the command of the army his father Don Ignacio was appointed to succeed him and supported by Don Juan José adopted a reactionary policy which was opposed by José Miguel and Luis at the head of the troops the two brothers assisted by two friends then drew up a plan for a constitution which was presented to the junta by one of their adherents this plan created a senate of seven members and contained two clauses which provided that 39th was king on condition of accepting and swearing the constitution made by the people and no decree emanating from authority outside the territory shall have any effect those who obeyed being punished by the officers to the state end quote these clauses were accepted by the junta but Don Ignacio Carrera being afraid to sign them retired from the government and Don José Miguel returned to office Carrera was again dictator and opposition was silent in the face of a new danger a royalist army had invaded Chilean territory and occupied the south he was now the champion of a noble cause the military chiefs even those who opposed his policy obeyed him willingly the people saw in danger the justification of a strong government the military repute he had brought with him from Europe cost him to be regarded as the first soldier of his country Abascal, vice-roy of Peru was then more than 70 years old by firmness and prudence he had maintained peace in his vice-royalty in the midst of the commotions of all Spanish America more than that he had made Peru the center of the royalist reaction had crashed rebellion in Upper Peru had made war on the Argentine provinces had sent an expedition to Quito and had kept Chiloé under his orders he had watched the Chilean revolution from its commencement waiting for a favorable opportunity to attack it Antonio Pareja, an experienced soldier was named commander general of Valdivia and Chiloé and early in 1813 reached the island with five vessels a number of officers fifty soldiers and fifty thousand dollars he quickly organized the militia of the archipelago with the garrison as a nucleus and crossed to Valdivia with 1400 men where he incorporated the garrison of that fortress raising his force to over 2000 men these he arranged in three divisions each with six guns and re-embarking sailed northwards keeping his destination secret three days afterwards on the 26th of March he landed in the bay of San Vincente taking the town of Talcauano in the rear and threatening Concepción in front Talcauano was taken by assault the garrison of Concepción mutinied and gave up the city thus speedily he was master of the south further strengthened his force by the garrisons of Arauco with 2000 regulars from two to three thousand militia and with 25 guns he opened the campaign early in April at Chilean the country rose in his favor increasing his force to 6000 men with whom he occupied the line to the river Nuble which lies to the south of the Maule Carrera was equally active he proclaimed himself general in chief with full powers declare war against the viceroy of Peru set up a giblet in the plaza of Santiago on which to hang all those who should hold communications with the enemy and cost the imposition of a forced loan of 260 thousand dollars upon those hostile to the revolution which measures inspired general enthusiasm and confidence on the first of April he established his headquarters to the north of the Maule nearly an escort and gave orders for the concentration of the army at Talca his friend, Council Poinsett accompanied him as a volunteer and the same day he was joined by Ahiggins who forgot his resentment an example followed by McKenna who was a talented engineer calling in the militia of the south who remained faithful in 20 days he was at the head of 10 thousand men from whom he organized an army of 2500 regulars badly armed and as many lancers of the militia with 16 field pieces the campaign opened with a piece of good fortune which greatly encouraged the patriots it chance that an officer sent with 500 men to surprise the vanguard of the enemy at a pass on the Maule misunderstood his orders and on the night of the 27th of April fell in with the main body of the royalists some 5 or 6 thousand strong not knowing who they were he attacked them and captured the whole of the artillery at dawn the enemy recovered from their panic pursued him and recaptured the guns and prisoners the loss of the patriots in killed and wounded was 4 times that of the royalists but the moral effect was that of a victory the greater part of the irregular cavalry deserted from Pareha who nevertheless advanced to the Maule the army was drawn up to force the passage when the men from Chiloé and Valdivia threw down their arms and refused to go further they cared nothing for the royalist cause beyond the Maule Pareha lying on a stretcher stricken with a mortal disease ordered a retreat on which the rest of the irregular dispersed and he was left with little more than a thousand men Carrera knew nothing of what had occurred and let 15 days pass before he made up his mind to cross the river the patriot vanguard under Luis Carrera came up with Pareha on the 15th of May as he was about to pass the noble the royalists halted the dying general mounted on horseback for the last time and placed Captain Sanchez in command Sanchez at once occupied some rising ground where he threw up an entrenchment with his baggage and formed his infantry in square he opened fire with 27 guns upon the patriots checking their advance Carrera then took the command and on the arrival of Don Juan Jose with the 2nd division drew up his infantry in line with cavalry on the flanks to surround the enemy Don Juan Jose without waiting for orders attacked the position and was driven back the same fate befell another battalion which followed his example mounted at the first shot the cavalry which had passed to the rear of the enemy were dispersed by artillery fire and the infantry fell back in disorder the 3rd division under Ohigins and McKenna then came up and prevented the advance of the enemy which would have turned the ripples into a rout Knight put a stop to this strange affair and Carrera retreated in disorder to San Carlos Sanchez crossed the noble of all his artillery without further molestation and retreated to Chilean with a loss of 6 killed and 15 wounded this battle of San Carlos showed that Carrera was destitute of military talent but he had the strength of mind to reject the councils of his disheartened officers who advised him to withdraw the army beyond the Maule and for the first time drew up a definite plan of operations with one part of his army Don and Talcahuano cutting off the retreat of the enemy by sea and dispatched Ohigins with his division to Arauco securing the south but in these maneuvers he lost much time and one detachment of 650 men left in reserve on the noble was captured by a royalist force from Chilean Sanchez was an obscure soldier born in Galicia of no real genius but quick-sighted of great tenacity and devoted to the cause he served at Chilean he entrenched himself aided by the people who were all royalists and by the preaching friars who had there a convent which soon became a well-provisioned citadel when Carrera against the advice of Ohigins and McKenna determined at the end of July to besiege Chilean it was already winter the season of heavy rains on the 3rd of August McKenna established a battery of 6 guns at 450 yards from the trenches the following morning Sanchez made a vigorous sally but was driven back the same afternoon he made another attack upon a reserve battery under the fire of his own redoubts a ball from which blew up the ammunition of the battery causing great confusion Carrera ordered the battery to be abandoned but his officers disobeyed him and Ohigins coming up to the rescue the enemy was again reposed his officers were considerable on both sides but the sufferings of the besiegers were augmented by the inclemency of the weather a convoy of ammunition for Carrera was intercepted by royalist guerrillas 30 miles from the encampment and delivered to Sanchez whose supplies were running short on the 5th Sanchez made another attack upon the advanced battery which was bravely repelled by Luis Carrera the Patriot general then ordered a assault upon the town which was beaten off by the townspeople themselves the spirit of the Patriot army was broken deaths and desertions greatly reduced their numbers Carrera summoned the garrison to surrender Sanchez replied by proposing an armistice during which the Patriots should recross the Maule a council of war was called and against the advice of McKenna the siege was raised on the 14th of August on the banks of the Itata and from this moment their cause declined Carrera again fell into the error of dividing his army he posted one division near the mouth of the Itata under command of his brother Juan José to protect the line of the Maule and O'Higgins was dispatched with a weak division to secure his frontier on the Biobio with the rest of his forces he went to Concepción while his guerrillas scoured the country in every direction this was just what suited Sanchez who could do nothing with a strong force in front of him he had plenty of irregulars who knew the country well and split up his force into flying columns to the north and south the depredations of the Patriots stirred up the resistance of the people and various detachments were cut up in detail O'Higgins could not prevent the reconquest of the line of the Biobio and the occupation of Arauco by which supplies were drawn by the royalists from Valdivia and Chiloé at the end of September Carrera was shut up in Concepción and the Patriot army was blockaded in three separate divisions he ordered their concentration at Concepción Juan José Carrera reached the Membrillar near to the junction of the Dignin with the Itata early in October where he was forced to entrench himself Carrera then marched to meet O'Higgins and joined him at the pass of El Roble some 10 miles to the east of Membrillar the united forces about 1000 strong encamped on ground badly chosen Sanchez joining the irregulars with a division from the Chian attacked them there on the night of the 19th of October in the confusion Carrera jumped his horse into the river and went off to join his brother receiving a lance wound in his flight his absence was not noticed but O'Higgins after three hours firing led a bayonet charge upon the enemy and drove them across the river when Carrera returned to the camp he saluted O'Higgins as the saviour of the division and of the country and in his official despatch spoke of him as the first of the soldiers capable of uniting in himself the glories of Chile these words were his own abdication his military star was eclipsed after this affair Carrera again changed his plan he left his brother and O'Higgins at the confluence of the Degin and Itata protected by field works and returned to Concepción this destroyed his prestige in the army and in the public opinion the press gave the signal of general discontent even from the pulpit the disastrous influence of the three Carreras was condemned when Carrera took command of the army his place as dictator was for a time filled by his brother Juan José when he also took the field his two colleagues resigned the corporations and the senate then named a new junta of three chosen from the moderate party two of whom were enemies of Carrera the new junta were active in furnishing supplies until the raising of the siege of Chián and the revolt of the province of Concepción produced strained relations between them and Carrera the capital became excited by the adverse course of the war and the liberals of 1811 clamored for a change in the constitution the press advocated the adoption of a more republican system on the 8th of October a meeting of the corporations convened by the junta confirmed them in power but directed that the seed of government don José Ignacio Cientuegos a man of great influence in the south and an enemy of Carrera joined the junta and La Reina an ex-president of the late congress and also an enemy of Carrera was left in charge of the affairs at Santiago government had organized in the capital a new battalion by their own adherents and had asked for a supply of arms from Buenos Aires 300 Chilean auxiliaries came back from that city and the Argentine government in return for their services had decreed that an Argentine auxiliary force of equal number should march to the assistance of Chile this column raised in the province of Cordoba and Mendoza crossed the Andes under the command of Don Juan Gregorio Las Eras and were warmly welcomed their first duty was to escort to the junta totalca where Colonel Don Marco Balcarce took command of the contingent the junta on receiving news of the affair at El Roble resolved to remove Carrera from the command and first thought of replacing him by Balcarce but yielding to national sentiment decided to appoint Colonel O'Higgins whose tried valor and civic virtues gave him great popularity both in the army and throughout the country the appointment in February 1814 had an evil effect upon the army where Carrera still had many partisans splitting it into two parties Carrera left for the capital accompanied by his brother Luis but on the road they were taken prisoners by a party of royalist irregulars under Baraniao and carried off to Chilean the army of which O'Higgins took command consisted of about 2500 men dispersed in factions, disheartened and badly armed and equipped on the 31st of January a reinforcement of royalist troops landed at Arauco consisting of 800 men and 6 guns under Brigadier General Gaintha appointed by the viceroy as successor to Pareha 8 days later he crossed the Biobio and joined Sanchez at Gian without meeting an insurgent on his march O'Higgins stationed one division of the army at Membriar while with the rest he marched to the line of the Biobio to intercept the supplies of the enemy this plan was as bad as those of Carrera McKenna left in command at Membriar had under his orders on the 14th of February 800 infantry, 100 dragoons and 16 guns soon after the country around was occupied by the light troops of the enemy so that he was obliged to make sallies in force to procure supplies and forage on one of these occasions when he had taken a considerable number of cattle his rare guard was attacked by a much stronger force which was driven off with heavy loss by las eras with 100 of the Argentine auxiliaries meantime a royalist detachment of 300 men had crossed the Maula and on the 4th of March attacked the city of Talca from which the junta had already withdrawn the feeble garrison made a stout resistance under Colonel Spano a Spaniard who had joined the patriots in 1809 but was overpowered Spano dying wrapped in the three colored flag he had so bravely defended this blow spread consternation in Santiago the people crowded to the plaza and Irithari proposed the appointment of a dictator following the example of the Roman Republic in times of danger and Colonel Lastra governor of Valparaiso was named supreme dictator the new government in a few days organized a force of 1500 men with six guns and placed in command a young man named Don Manuel Blanco and Calada but these raw troops were repulsed in an attack upon Talca and were afterwards completely routed at Cancerayada on the 27th of March the position of McKenna at Membriar became very difficult the loss of Talca cut his communications with the capital he threw up more entrenchments and remained steadily on the defensive O'Higgins started to his assistance on the 16th of March leaving weak garrisons in Concepcion and Talcawana it was time Gaintha was already between them on the 19th O'Higgins drove in the royalist vanguard at Chio and Gaintha withdrawing the garrison from Chiyan fell next day upon McKenna but was beaten off with the loss of 80 killed on the 23rd O'Higgins joined McKenna and next day moved off northward with 2600 infantry 600 cavalry and 20 guns Gaintha harassing his rear marched in the same direction victory would lie with him who could first cross the Maula O'Higgins by a skillful maneuver captured the pass and throbbing up defenses of brushwood in his rear beat off an attack and crossed on the 4th of April Gaintha crossed by a different pass on the same day and tried to stop the march of the patriot army at the pass on the Claro River on the 7th O'Higgins forced the pass and the two armies faced each other between that river and the Lontue at Quechirangas O'Higgins threw up entrenchments on the 8th and 9th beat off attacks of the enemy giving time for the arrival of reinforcements from Santiago Gaintha then retreated to Talca and the garrisons of Concepción and Talcauano capitulated By this time the Anglo-Spanish armies had driven the French from Spain and the government of Spain called upon the insurgent colonies to send deputies to Cortes In Mexico the royalist armies the rising star of Bolivar at Caracas was about to suffer eclipse the revolutions of Quito, Venezuela and New Granada were crushed. Lima, still the great center of reaction, prepared yet another expedition to the conquest of Chile only in the United provinces of the river played did the revolutions still hold its ground In these circumstances Heliar, Commodore of the British squadron of the Pacific, offered his mediation to the country of Peru for the pacification of Chile His offer was accepted and he reached Santiago just after the successful defense of Quecharrangas Government appointed Ohigins and McKenna to conduct the negotiation It was accordingly arranged on the 3rd of May that Chile should return to the state of the year 1811 under the rule of a provisional junta subject to the regency of Spain that the royalist troops would come to Chile within one month that Chile should send deputies to the peninsula to settle all disputes and should do what she could to help the cause of Spain This arrangement, which is known as the Treaty of Liercae was badly received in the royalist camp and also by public opinion in Chile and resulted in nothing more than a truce It is a question whether these terms were agreed upon in good faith by either party Since Gaintha was concerned they saved him from certain defeats Don Francisco Antonio Pinto diplomatic agent of Chile in London was instructed to repair to Madrid in representation of her interests but the royalist troops were not withdrawn and the government remained in the hands of Lastra as supreme director Chile was resolved upon liberty at any cost and public opinion which had forced on the treaty pronounced against it The alliance between Chile and the United provinces was de facto at an end and the Argentine auxiliaries were withdrawn from the army to Santiago On the 22nd of July a mutiny in the barracks restored the Carrera to power. They proclaimed themselves the saviors of the country By the Treaty of Liercae Don Jose Miguel and Don Luis were excluded from the arrangement for a mutual exchange of prisoners They were to be sent by sea to Valparaiso and then banished into honorable exile but escaping from their prison at Ch'an they had reached the capital and raised this mutiny in which style of work Don Jose Miguel displayed more skill than he had done in the field against the national enemy A provisional junta was named by the noisy shouts of an open cabildo of which Carrera made himself president Had Carrera torn up the Treaty of Liercae he would have had both reason and patriotism on his side But his first step was to confirm the clause relating to freedom of commerce with Peru and to exhort the people to preserve peace As before he had neither ideas nor courage and in his hands Congress, army and revolution were all lost together In spite of the protests of Las Eras the Argentine auxiliaries were ignorumously expelled from the capital on the pretext that it was their duty to assist the government when called upon O'Higgins counseled them to observe absolute neutrality in all civil disputes following the example of the Chilean auxiliaries in Buenos Aires in the revolution of 1812 and at the invitation of the cabildo marched his army upon Santiago Carrera met him on the plains of Maipo where for the first time his blood was shed by Chileans and O'Higgins was defeated Meantime the viceroy of Peru had refused to ratify the Treaty of Peace had dispatched a fresh expedition to Talcauano and General Osorio at the head of 5000 men was now marching on the capital In this emergency O'Higgins put himself and the remnants of his force under the orders of Carrera who speedily collected 5 or 6000 men who might have done something had they been well fed but neither he nor O'Higgins showed any capacity for command the latter with 1700 men was cut off from the main body and shut up at Rancagua where he defended himself with desperate valor for 32 hours against the whole army of the royalists till his ammunition being exhausted he cut his way through the enemy at the head of 300 men and rejoined Carrera to Santiago here all was confusion and the people having lost confidence in their own leaders were ready to shout for the king Las eras marching south with the Argentine auxiliaries met O'Higgins in full retreat towards the Cordillera and protected the rare until the fugitives from Santiago were safe on Argentine soil Carrera visit himself only in trying to secure the public treasure and carried off with him beyond Santa Rosa but he was overtaken and the treasure fell into the hands of his pursuers on the slopes of Las Pepeles on the 11th of October on the night of the 13th he crossed the snow line on the summits bidding farewell to his country which he was never to see again so ended the first period of the revolution of Chile which is styled quote the time of the old country the new country was yet to come Argentines and Chileans in alliance were yet to raise from the dust the banners of Rancagua and to bear them triumphant to the equator end of chapter 8